{ "dataset": "explainer_facts", "as_of_date": "2026-10-09", "generated_at": "2026-10-10T01:53:45Z", "description": "Verified fact base for the Nuclear Atlas explainer pages (Nuclear 101 and supply chain). One record per claim with the exact figure, unit, qualifier and the citation that was read on verified_on. Writers must use these rows and avoid the could_not_verify list.", "sources": [ { "name": "ANS Nuclear Newswire - Onkalo SNF repository passes safety assessment", "url": "https://www.ans.org/news/article-8280/onkalo-snf-repository-passes-safety-assessment/", "document_date": "2026-08-10", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "ANS Nuclear Newswire - The deadline arrives: checking in on the Reactor Pilot Program", "url": "https://www.ans.org/news/article-8178/the-deadline-arrives-checking-in-on-the-reactor-pilot-program/", "document_date": "2026-07-02", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "ANS Nuclear Newswire - Uranium prices steady as EIA releases annual market report", "url": "https://www.ans.org/news/article-8270/uranium-prices-steady-as-eia-releases-annual-market-report/", "document_date": "2026-08-05", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "Cameco - Uranium Price (industry average of UxC and TradeTech month-end prices)", "url": "https://www.cameco.com/invest/markets/uranium-price", "document_date": "2026-10-09", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "Centrus Energy Corp - Form 8-K (DOE HALEU contract of 30 June 2026)", "url": "https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/0001065059/000162828026046801/leu-20260630.htm", "document_date": "2026-07-02", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "Federal Register - NuScale Small Modular Reactor Design Certification, final rule (88 FR 3287)", "url": "https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2023/01/19/2023-00729/nuscale-small-modular-reactor-design-certification", "document_date": "2023-01-19", "accessed": "2026-10-10" }, { "name": "GE Vernova press release - NRC issues first US construction permit for BWRX-300 SMR (TVA Clinch River)", "url": "https://www.gevernova.com/news/press-releases/nrc-issues-first-us-construction-permit-bwrx-300-small-modular-reactor-tva-clinch-river", "document_date": "2026-09-29", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "GOV.UK press release - Rolls-Royce SMR selected to build small modular nuclear reactors", "url": "https://www.gov.uk/government/news/rolls-royce-smr-selected-to-build-small-modular-nuclear-reactors", "document_date": "2025-06-10", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "Generation IV International Forum - Generation IV criteria and technologies", "url": "https://www.gen-4.org/generation-iv-criteria-and-technologies", "document_date": "2026-10-09", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "IAEA - Small modular reactors (topic page)", "url": "https://www.iaea.org/topics/small-modular-reactors", "document_date": "2026-10-09", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "IAEA Bulletin - Small reactors, great potential (Irena Chatzis)", "url": "https://www.iaea.org/bulletin/small-reactors-great-potential", "document_date": "2026-10-09", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "IAEA PRIS - Operational Reactors by Type", "url": "https://pris.iaea.org/PRIS/WorldStatistics/OperationalReactorsByType.aspx", "document_date": "2026-07-23", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "Kairos Power - Kairos Power breaks ground on Hermes 2 demonstration plant", "url": "https://www.kairospower.com/updates/kairos-power-breaks-ground-on-hermes-2-demonstration-plant", "document_date": "2026-04-17", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "Kanton Zürich - Medienmitteilung: Geologisches Tiefenlager und Brennelemente-Verpackungsanlage (Rahmenbewilligungsgesuche eingereicht)", "url": "https://www.zh.ch/de/news-uebersicht/medienmitteilungen/2024/11/geologisches-tiefenlager-und-brennelemente-verpackungsanlage.html", "document_date": "2024-11-19", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "NIST - Atomic Weights and Isotopic Compositions: Uranium", "url": "https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/Compositions/stand_alone.pl?ele=U", "document_date": "2026-10-09", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "NNDC NuDat 3 / ENSDF adopted levels - 131I", "url": "https://www.nndc.bnl.gov/nudat3/getdataset.jsp?nucleus=131I&unc=nds", "document_date": "2006-07-17", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "NNDC NuDat 3 / ENSDF adopted levels - 137Cs", "url": "https://www.nndc.bnl.gov/nudat3/getdataset.jsp?nucleus=137CS&unc=nds", "document_date": "2007-01-01", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "NNDC NuDat 3 / ENSDF adopted levels - 235U", "url": "https://www.nndc.bnl.gov/nudat3/getdataset.jsp?nucleus=235U&unc=nds", "document_date": "2014-02-01", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "NNDC NuDat 3 / ENSDF adopted levels - 238U", "url": "https://www.nndc.bnl.gov/nudat3/getdataset.jsp?nucleus=238U&unc=nds", "document_date": "2014-06-01", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "NNDC NuDat 3 / ENSDF adopted levels - 239Pu", "url": "https://www.nndc.bnl.gov/nudat3/getdataset.jsp?nucleus=239PU&unc=nds", "document_date": "2014-01-01", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "NNDC NuDat 3 / ENSDF adopted levels - 90Sr", "url": "https://www.nndc.bnl.gov/nudat3/getdataset.jsp?nucleus=90SR&unc=nds", "document_date": "2020-03-01", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "NucNet - Hot testing begins at China's Linglong-1 small modular reactor", "url": "https://www.nucnet.org/news/hot-testing-begins-at-china-s-linglong-1-small-modular-reactor-10-3-2026", "document_date": "2026-10-07", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "NucNet - US nuclear regulator accepts partial construction permit application for Palisades SMRs", "url": "https://www.nucnet.org/news/us-nuclear-regulator-accepts-partial-construction-permit-application-for-palisades-smrs-2-3-2026", "document_date": "2026-02-25", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "Our World in Data - Death rates per unit of electricity production (grapher data)", "url": "https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/death-rates-from-energy-production-per-twh", "document_date": "2026-10-09", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "Our World in Data - How does the land use of different electricity sources compare? (Hannah Ritchie)", "url": "https://ourworldindata.org/land-use-per-energy-source", "document_date": "2022-06-16", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "Our World in Data - What are the safest and cleanest sources of energy? (Hannah Ritchie)", "url": "https://ourworldindata.org/safest-sources-of-energy", "document_date": "2024-03-01", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "Public Law 118-62 - Prohibiting Russian Uranium Imports Act (govinfo)", "url": "https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PLAW-118publ62/html/PLAW-118publ62.htm", "document_date": "2024-05-13", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "SKB - The Government approves SKB's final repository system", "url": "https://skb.com/news/the-government-approves-skbs-final-repository-system", "document_date": "2022-01-27", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "TerraPower - NRC Approves Natrium Reactor Construction Permit", "url": "https://www.terrapower.com/NRC-Approves-Natrium-Reactor-Construction-Permit", "document_date": "2026-03-04", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "TradeTech - Conversion Value (indicator description)", "url": "https://www.uranium.info/conversion_value.php", "document_date": "2026-10-09", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "TradeTech - Unit Conversion Table", "url": "https://uranium.info/unit_conversion_table.php", "document_date": "2026-10-09", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "US DOE Office of Nuclear Energy - 5 Fast Facts about Spent Nuclear Fuel", "url": "https://www.energy.gov/ne/articles/5-fast-facts-about-spent-nuclear-fuel", "document_date": "2022-10-03", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "US DOE Office of Nuclear Energy - What is High-Assay Low-Enriched Uranium (HALEU)?", "url": "https://www.energy.gov/ne/articles/what-high-assay-low-enriched-uranium-haleu", "document_date": "2024-12-03", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "US DOE Office of Nuclear Energy - What is a Nuclear Microreactor?", "url": "https://www.energy.gov/ne/articles/what-nuclear-microreactor", "document_date": "2021-02-26", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "US EIA - 2025 Uranium Marketing Annual Report", "url": "https://www.eia.gov/uranium/marketing/", "document_date": "2026-08-13", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "US EIA Electric Power Annual - Table 4.08.B Capacity Factors for Utility Scale Generators Primarily Using Non-Fossil Fuels", "url": "https://www.eia.gov/electricity/annual/html/epa_04_08_b.html", "document_date": "2026-10-09", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "US NRC - AP1000 Design Certification", "url": "https://www.nrc.gov/reactors/new-reactors/large-lwr/design-cert/ap1000.html", "document_date": "2026-09-14", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "US NRC - Backgrounder on the Three Mile Island Accident", "url": "https://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/fact-sheets/3mile-isle.html", "document_date": "2026-09-10", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "US NRC - Doses in Our Daily Lives", "url": "https://www.nrc.gov/about-nrc/radiation/around-us/doses-daily-lives.html", "document_date": "2015-10-05", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "US NRC - NuScale US460 (applicant project page)", "url": "https://www.nrc.gov/reactors/new-reactors/advanced/who-were-working-with/applicant-projects/nuscale-us460.html", "document_date": "2026-09-16", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "US NRC - Pressurized Water Reactors", "url": "https://www.nrc.gov/reactors/power/pwrs.html", "document_date": "2026-09-14", "accessed": "2026-10-10" }, { "name": "US NRC - Uranium Enrichment (fuel cycle facilities)", "url": "https://www.nrc.gov/materials/fuel-cycle-fac/ur-enrichment.html", "document_date": "2026-09-15", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "US NRC - mandatory hearing notice, Long Mott Generating Station (via data/smr_projects.csv)", "url": "https://www.nrc.gov/public-involve/public-meetings/pmns/20260726", "document_date": "2026-09-22", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "US NRC Glossary - Defense in depth", "url": "https://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/basic-ref/glossary/defense-in-depth.html", "document_date": "2021-03-09", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "USGS Fact Sheet FS-163-97 - Radioactive Elements in Coal and Fly Ash", "url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/1997/fs163-97/FS-163-97.html", "document_date": "1997-10-01", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "UxC - Nuclear Fuel Price Indicators (public page)", "url": "https://www.uxc.com/p/prices/uxcprices.aspx", "document_date": "2026-10-09", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "WNA - Advanced Nuclear Power Reactors", "url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-power-reactors/advanced-nuclear-power-reactors", "document_date": "2025-11-21", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "WNA - Carbon Dioxide Emissions From Electricity", "url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/energy-and-the-environment/carbon-dioxide-emissions-from-electricity", "document_date": "2026-03-26", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "WNA - Chernobyl Accident 1986", "url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/safety-and-security/safety-of-plants/chernobyl-accident", "document_date": "2026-04-15", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "WNA - Conversion and Deconversion", "url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/conversion-enrichment-and-fabrication/conversion-and-deconversion", "document_date": "2024-11-20", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "WNA - Cooling Power Plants", "url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/cooling-power-plants", "document_date": "2026-09-08", "accessed": "2026-10-10" }, { "name": "WNA - Fast Neutron Reactors", "url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/fast-neutron-reactors", "document_date": "2026-03-31", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "WNA - Fuel Fabrication", "url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/conversion-enrichment-and-fabrication/fuel-fabrication", "document_date": "2026-08-04", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "WNA - Fukushima Daiichi Accident", "url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/safety-and-security/safety-of-plants/fukushima-daiichi-accident", "document_date": "2026-09-23", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "WNA - Molten Salt Reactors", "url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/molten-salt-reactors", "document_date": "2025-11-21", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "WNA - Nuclear Fuel Cycle Overview", "url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/introduction/nuclear-fuel-cycle-overview", "document_date": "2025-09-23", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "WNA - Nuclear Power Reactors", "url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-power-reactors/nuclear-power-reactors", "document_date": "2026-08-05", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "WNA - Nuclear Power in Russia (country profile)", "url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-o-s/russia-nuclear-power", "document_date": "2026-07-22", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "WNA - Physics of Nuclear Energy", "url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/introduction/physics-of-nuclear-energy", "document_date": "2026-03-30", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "WNA - Processing of Used Nuclear Fuel", "url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/fuel-recycling/processing-of-used-nuclear-fuel", "document_date": "2024-08-23", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "WNA - Radioactive Waste Management", "url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-wastes/radioactive-waste-management", "document_date": "2025-11-22", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "WNA - Safety of Nuclear Power Reactors", "url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/safety-and-security/safety-of-plants/safety-of-nuclear-power-reactors", "document_date": "2026-05-27", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "WNA - Small Nuclear Power Reactors", "url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-power-reactors/small-nuclear-power-reactors", "document_date": "2026-10-01", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "WNA - Storage and Disposal of Radioactive Waste", "url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-wastes/storage-and-disposal-of-radioactive-waste", "document_date": "2026-03-26", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "WNA - Transport of Radioactive Materials", "url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/transport-of-nuclear-materials/transport-of-radioactive-materials", "document_date": "2026-08-16", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "WNA - Uranium Enrichment", "url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/conversion-enrichment-and-fabrication/uranium-enrichment", "document_date": "2026-09-29", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "WNA - Uranium Markets", "url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/uranium-resources/uranium-markets", "document_date": "2024-08-23", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "WNA - Uranium Mining Overview", "url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/mining-of-uranium/uranium-mining-overview", "document_date": "2026-10-06", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "WNA - What is Uranium? How Does it Work?", "url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/introduction/what-is-uranium-how-does-it-work", "document_date": "2026-10-06", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "WNA - World Uranium Mining Production", "url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/mining-of-uranium/world-uranium-mining-production", "document_date": "2026-10-06", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "WNN - Chinese HTR-PM Demo begins commercial operation (via data/smr_projects.csv)", "url": "https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/Chinese-HTR-PM-Demo-begins-commercial-operation", "document_date": "2023-12-06", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "WNN - Final investment decision taken for Romania's SMRs", "url": "https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/articles/final-investment-decision-taken-for-romanias-smrs", "document_date": "2026-02-13", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "WNN - Licensing of newcleo's SMR progresses in France", "url": "https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/articles/licensing-of-newcleos-smr-progresses-in-France", "document_date": "2026-01-15", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "WNN - Regulator approves safety case for French repository", "url": "https://world-nuclear-news.org/articles/regulator-approves-safety-case-for-french-repository", "document_date": "2025-12-08", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "Westinghouse - AP1000 PWR Safety", "url": "https://www.westinghousenuclear.com/energy-systems/ap1000-pwr/safety", "document_date": "2026-10-09", "accessed": "2026-10-09" }, { "name": "Westinghouse - AP300 SMR", "url": "https://www.westinghousenuclear.com/energy-systems/ap300-smr", "document_date": "2026-10-09", "accessed": "2026-10-09" } ], "fields": { "fact_id": "slug, unique", "page": "one of fission, reactor_families, safety_generations, smr, smr_designs, waste, safety_record, supply_chain, pricing_units, contracting, misunderstandings", "topic": "sub-topic within the page", "claim": "one sentence, exact figure with unit where numeric", "value": "the figure(s) as printed by the source (';'-separated when several)", "unit": "unit(s) of value", "qualifier": "scope, year or typical-plant assumption", "citation_name": "source name", "citation_url": "source URL actually read", "citation_date": "date printed on the source (page update or document date)", "verified_on": "date the source was read", "confidence": "high = primary/authoritative source read on verified_on; medium = reputable secondary read on verified_on; low = not re-verified", "contradictions": "where sources disagree, both figures with their sources", "notes": "free text" }, "summary": { "n_facts": 201, "by_page": { "fission": 18, "reactor_families": 19, "safety_generations": 18, "smr": 7, "smr_designs": 19, "waste": 22, "safety_record": 7, "supply_chain": 57, "pricing_units": 14, "contracting": 10, "misunderstandings": 10 }, "by_confidence": { "high": 65, "medium": 136, "low": 0 }, "n_with_contradictions": 19, "n_could_not_verify": 26 }, "could_not_verify": [ { "claim": "ISR/ISL accounts for 57-60% of world uranium production", "reason": "WNA World Uranium Mining Production (2026-10-06) gives 'over 55%' for 2024; WNA Mining Overview gives about 52%. No page read today supports 57-60%.", "use_instead": "fact sc_mining_method_isl_share_2024 ('over 55%' in 2024)" }, { "claim": "Why yellowcake is often not yellow: calcining temperature and colour chemistry", "reason": "WNA says only that the concentrate 'is usually khaki' and that diuranate products are dried at high temperatures; no temperature or colour chemistry on any page read today.", "use_instead": "fact sc_yellowcake_colour (qualitative)" }, { "claim": "Current UF6 conversion price in US$/kgU and current SWU spot price in US$/SWU", "reason": "UxC and TradeTech values are behind a login; Cameco's MD&A PDF could not be fetched; no public dated figure found today.", "use_instead": "fact pu_swu_price_us_2025 (EIA weighted average US$108.70/SWU for 2025) and the qualitative publisher facts" }, { "claim": "Type 30B cylinder holds 2.277 t UF6", "reason": "WNA prints 2.27 t; the 2.277 t figure is the ANSI N14.1 fill limit, which was not read today.", "use_instead": "fact sc_transport_30b_cylinder (2.27 t)" }, { "claim": "Centrus Piketon HALEU production rate of 12 t/yr under the January 2026 DOE award", "reason": "Only WNA mentions 12 t/yr; the Centrus 8-K describes a 1 MTU base delivery by March 2032 plus options.", "use_instead": "fact sc_haleu_centrus_contract_2026" }, { "claim": "Base-escalated vs market-related pricing shares in US utility contracts", "reason": "Neither the WNA Uranium Markets page nor the EIA UMAR summary read today gives a split; EIA pricing-mechanism table not captured.", "use_instead": "fact pu_term_vs_spot_pricing (qualitative)" }, { "claim": "Rokkasho reprocessing plant start-up date / current status", "reason": "Only the 800 t/yr design capacity was read today (WNA 2024-08-23).", "use_instead": "fact sc_reprocessing_rokkasho without a start-up date" }, { "claim": "IPCC AR5 Annex III lifecycle medians other than nuclear: wind 11 (onshore) / 12 (offshore), solar PV 41 (rooftop) / 48 (utility), hydro 24, gas 490, coal 820 gCO2eq/kWh", "reason": "The IPCC Annex III PDF (ipcc.ch and archive.ipcc.ch) could not be fetched and no primary mirror was reachable; only the nuclear median (12 g) was confirmed via WNA.", "use_instead": "facts sr_lifecycle_nuclear_ipcc, sr_lifecycle_nuclear_unece and sr_lifecycle_solar_oil_owid; re-fetch the IPCC table before quoting other medians" }, { "claim": "UNECE 2021 lifecycle figures for technologies other than nuclear, and UNECE land-use values in m2 per MWh", "reason": "UNECE report page and PDF could not be fetched today.", "use_instead": "fact mu_land_use (relative factors as presented by OWID) and sr_lifecycle_nuclear_unece" }, { "claim": "AP1000 provides 72 hours of passive cooling without operator action", "reason": "Westinghouse's AP1000 pages read today say 'indefinitely following design-basis events' and give no 72-hour figure; WNA gives 72 hours only as the generic Generation III grace period (and for the CAP1400).", "use_instead": "fact sg_gen3_features ('typically 72 hours' for Gen III designs) plus sg_ap1000_passive" }, { "claim": "Highly enriched uranium is defined as 20% or more U-235 (NRC glossary wording)", "reason": "NRC glossary HEU entry failed to fetch twice; DOE's HALEU definition ('5% and less than 20%') implies the 20% boundary but no page read today prints the HEU definition itself.", "use_instead": "fact fi_enrichment_grades (states 20% as the boundary with the DOE-implied caveat)" }, { "claim": "Coal-fired power plants expose the public to about 100 times more radiation than nuclear plants (ORNL Review, Gabbard)", "reason": "ORNL page failed to fetch twice; the USGS fact sheet read today gives no coal-vs-nuclear comparison and puts coal's population dose at much less than 1% of the total.", "use_instead": "fact mu_coal_radioactivity (USGS ppm figures and dose share)" }, { "claim": "Banana equivalent dose (~0.1 microsievert per banana)", "reason": "NRC's doses page lists only the potassium-40 activity of bananas (3,520 pCi/kg), not a dose; EPA pages are blocked.", "use_instead": "fact mu_everyday_doses (chest X-ray 10 mrem, CT 1 rem, background 620 mrem/yr)" }, { "claim": "Natural uranium is 0.72% U-235 / 99.27% U-238 (as rounded in the brief)", "reason": "Verified only via NIST's 0.7204% / 99.2742%; industry pages print 0.7% / 99.3%.", "use_instead": "fact fi_natural_abundance_precise (cite NIST) or fi_natural_abundance_rounded" }, { "claim": "VVER defining features: hexagonal fuel assemblies and horizontal steam generators", "reason": "WNA pages read today describe VVERs only as water-moderated and water-cooled PWRs.", "use_instead": "fact rf_vver without those details" }, { "claim": "TMSR-LF1 (China) achieved criticality in 2023 and loaded thorium fuel in 2024/2025", "reason": "The WNA molten salt reactors page (updated 2025-11-21) still lists TMSR-LF1 as under construction.", "use_instead": "fact rf_msr_history (as listed by WNA)" }, { "claim": "IAEA INES level descriptions in IAEA's own wording and INSAG-10 five levels of defence in depth", "reason": "IAEA INES pages and the INSAG-10 PDF could not be fetched (INSAG-10 required a permission that was not granted).", "use_instead": "facts sg_ines_scale (IAEA table as reproduced by WNA) and sg_defence_in_depth_nrc (NRC glossary)" }, { "claim": "Akademik Lomonosov commercial operation on 22 May 2020 (exact day)", "reason": "WNA prints only 'May 2020'.", "use_instead": "fact smr_lomonosov ('May 2020')" }, { "claim": "Westinghouse AP300 is a 300 MWe design", "reason": "Westinghouse's own page gives 330 MWe (990 MWth); 300 MWe appears only in the brief and data/smr_projects.csv.", "use_instead": "fact sd_westinghouse_ap300 (330 MWe) and correct smr_projects.csv" }, { "claim": "Amazon's role in X-energy / Energy Northwest Xe-100 projects; X-energy Xe-100 TRISO enrichment 15.5%", "reason": "Not verified on any page read today (developer design data in smr_projects.csv).", "use_instead": "fact sd_xe100 without Amazon or enrichment" }, { "claim": "Fuel assemblies spend 3-6 years in the reactor", "reason": "WNA Nuclear Fuel Cycle Overview says about three years (18-36 months of cycles).", "use_instead": "fact fi_refuelling_cycle" }, { "claim": "US nuclear capacity factor 2024 of about 92%", "reason": "EIA Electric Power Annual Table 4.08.B prints 90.8% for 2024 and 93.0% for 2023.", "use_instead": "fact sr_capacity_factor_us_2024" }, { "claim": "Sr-90 half-life 28.8 years", "reason": "Current ENSDF adopted value is 28.91 years.", "use_instead": "fact wa_half_life_sr90" }, { "claim": "NEA statements on radiotoxicity of spent fuel over time", "reason": "No NEA page was read today; the 9,000 vs 300,000 years statement is WNA's.", "use_instead": "fact wa_ore_level_time cited to WNA" }, { "claim": "Onkalo first disposal date / operating licence granted", "reason": "As of the sources read (ANS 2026-08-10) the licence decision was still pending; no disposal start confirmed.", "use_instead": "fact wa_onkalo_status (status as of August 2026)" }, { "claim": "Last Energy PWR-20 UK (Llynfi) licensing status in 2026", "reason": "Only a July 2025 headline-level reference exists in smr_projects.csv (low confidence).", "use_instead": "fact sd_last_energy (Texas pilot status)" } ], "blocked_sources": [ "https://www.epa.gov/radiation/radionuclide-basics-uranium (fetch permission not granted, first run)", "https://pris.iaea.org/pris/worldstatistics/operationalbytype.aspx (redirects to a JavaScript-only app; used OperationalReactorsByType.aspx instead)", "https://www.energy.gov/ne/russian-uranium-import-ban-waiver-process (fetch error twice; used govinfo statute text instead)", "https://www.centrusenergy.com/what-we-do/nuclear-fuel/haleu/ (fetch error twice; used Centrus Form 8-K on sec.gov instead)", "https://www.cameco.com/sites/default/files/documents/2026-Q2-MDA.pdf (fetch error; no public conversion/SWU price found)", "https://international.andra.fr/ (JavaScript only; used WNN and ANS instead)", "https://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/basic-ref/glossary/highly-enriched-uranium-heu.html (fetch error twice)", "https://www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/what-are-small-modular-reactors-smrs (fetch error twice; used iaea.org/topics/small-modular-reactors and the IAEA Bulletin)", "https://www.iaea.org/resources/databases/international-nuclear-and-radiological-event-scale and https://www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/ines.pdf (fetch errors; used WNA's reproduction of the IAEA INES table)", "https://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/Publications/PDF/Pub1013e_web.pdf INSAG-10 (fetch permission request not answered)", "https://www-nds.iaea.org/relnsd/v1/data (fetch error twice; used NNDC NuDat/ENSDF instead)", "https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/ipcc_wg3_ar5_annex-iii.pdf (fetch error twice), https://archive.ipcc.ch/... (fetch error), web.archive.org copy (site blocked)", "https://unece.org/sed/documents/2021/10/reports/life-cycle-assessment-electricity-generation-options and the LCA PDF (fetch errors)", "https://web.ornl.gov/info/ornlreview/rev26-34/text/colmain.html (fetch error twice; used USGS FS-163-97 instead)", "https://www.nrc.gov/reactors/new-reactors/smr/licensing-activities/nuscale-us460.html (fetch error; used the NRC applicant-projects page instead)", "https://www.cnsc-ccsn.gc.ca/eng/reactors/power-plants/nuclear-facilities/darlington-new-nuclear-project/ (fetch error; used GE Vernova release)", "https://www.gov.uk/government/news/rolls-royce-smr-selected-to-build-uks-first-small-modular-reactors (wrong slug; the correct GOV.UK release was read)", "https://nagra.ch/en/general-licence-application/ (robots.txt disallows; used Canton Zurich press release and WNA)", "https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/land-use-per-energy-source.csv (fetch error; used the article text)", "https://www.eia.gov/electricity/monthly/epm_table_grapher.php?t=epmt_6_07_b (values only in XLSX; used Electric Power Annual Table 4.08.B instead)", "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10921029/table/T2 (reCAPTCHA) and https://www.e-control.at/... (navigation only) - tried as IPCC mirrors" ], "records": [ { "fact_id": "sc_uranium_abundance_rocks", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "mining", "claim": "Uranium is present in most rocks at concentrations of about 2 to 4 parts per million.", "value": "2-4", "unit": "ppm", "qualifier": "average crustal rocks", "citation_name": "WNA - What is Uranium? How Does it Work?", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/introduction/what-is-uranium-how-does-it-work", "citation_date": "2026-10-06", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "sc_production_2024_tu", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "mining", "claim": "World uranium mine production in 2024 was 60,213 tU (71,006 t U3O8).", "value": "60213", "unit": "tU", "qualifier": "calendar 2024", "citation_name": "WNA - World Uranium Mining Production", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/mining-of-uranium/world-uranium-mining-production", "citation_date": "2026-10-06", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "WNA also prints the U3O8 equivalent 71,006 t; ratio 1.1792." }, { "fact_id": "sc_production_share_of_requirements", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "mining", "claim": "Mine production supplied about 90% of world reactor requirements in 2024, the balance coming from secondary supplies such as inventories.", "value": "90", "unit": "%", "qualifier": "2024", "citation_name": "WNA - World Uranium Mining Production", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/mining-of-uranium/world-uranium-mining-production", "citation_date": "2026-10-06", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "WNA Uranium Markets page (updated 2024-08-23) says mines supplied 74% of utilities' requirements in 2022 (58,201 t U3O8); the two pages cover different years and the 2022 figure is depressed by Kazakh cutbacks - cite the year with the number.", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "sc_mining_method_isl_share_2024", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "mining", "claim": "In situ leach (ISL, also called in situ recovery) mining accounted for over 55% of world uranium production in 2024.", "value": "55", "unit": "% (over)", "qualifier": "2024", "citation_name": "WNA - World Uranium Mining Production", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/mining-of-uranium/world-uranium-mining-production", "citation_date": "2026-10-06", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "WNA Uranium Mining Overview (updated 2026-10-06) gives 'about 52% from in situ leach', 44% conventional (open pit and underground) and 4% by-product, without stating a year (earlier data). The project brief assumed 57-60%, which no page read today supports.", "notes": "Use 'about 55%' or 'more than half' in copy; do not write 57-60%." }, { "fact_id": "sc_mining_method_conventional_share_2024", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "mining", "claim": "Underground and open-pit mining together accounted for about 40% of world uranium production in 2024.", "value": "40", "unit": "%", "qualifier": "2024", "citation_name": "WNA - World Uranium Mining Production", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/mining-of-uranium/world-uranium-mining-production", "citation_date": "2026-10-06", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "WNA Uranium Mining Overview gives 44% for conventional mines (year not stated).", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "sc_mining_method_byproduct_share_2024", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "mining", "claim": "About 5% of world uranium production in 2024 was recovered as a by-product of other mineral extraction (mainly copper and gold).", "value": "5", "unit": "%", "qualifier": "2024", "citation_name": "WNA - World Uranium Mining Production", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/mining-of-uranium/world-uranium-mining-production", "citation_date": "2026-10-06", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "WNA Uranium Mining Overview gives 4% (year not stated).", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "sc_top_producer_countries_2024", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "mining", "claim": "The largest producing countries in 2024 were Kazakhstan 23,270 tU, Canada 14,309 tU, Namibia 7,333 tU, Australia 4,598 tU and Uzbekistan 4,000 tU (estimate).", "value": "23270; 14309; 7333; 4598; 4000", "unit": "tU", "qualifier": "calendar 2024; Uzbekistan estimated", "citation_name": "WNA - World Uranium Mining Production", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/mining-of-uranium/world-uranium-mining-production", "citation_date": "2026-10-06", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "sc_top_producer_companies_2024", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "mining", "claim": "Kazatomprom was the largest producing company in 2024 with 12,463 tU (21% of world output), followed by Cameco with 10,193 tU (17%).", "value": "12463; 10193", "unit": "tU", "qualifier": "2024, attributable production as compiled by WNA", "citation_name": "WNA - World Uranium Mining Production", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/mining-of-uranium/world-uranium-mining-production", "citation_date": "2026-10-06", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "sc_top10_mines_share_2024", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "mining", "claim": "The ten largest mines produced 62% of world uranium output in 2024.", "value": "62", "unit": "%", "qualifier": "2024", "citation_name": "WNA - World Uranium Mining Production", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/mining-of-uranium/world-uranium-mining-production", "citation_date": "2026-10-06", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "sc_ore_grade_typical", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "mining", "claim": "Most deposits supporting current mines have average grades above 0.10% uranium; some mines operate on ore down to about 0.02% U, while some Canadian deposits average up to 20% U.", "value": "0.10 (typical minimum); 0.02 (low); 20 (Canadian high-grade)", "unit": "% U", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "WNA - Uranium Mining Overview", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/mining-of-uranium/uranium-mining-overview", "citation_date": "2026-10-06", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "WNA adds that Canadian mine and mill facilities are designed to handle ore grades up to 26% U; heap-leach ore is usually below 0.1% U." }, { "fact_id": "sc_milling_process", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "milling", "claim": "At a conventional mill the ore is crushed and ground, leached (usually with sulfuric acid) to dissolve the uranium oxides, the uranium is recovered from solution by ion exchange or solvent extraction, precipitated as a diuranate or peroxide, and then dewatered and roasted to yield the U3O8 product.", "value": "", "unit": "", "qualifier": "conventional acid-leach mill", "citation_name": "WNA - Uranium Mining Overview", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/mining-of-uranium/uranium-mining-overview", "citation_date": "2026-10-06", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "sc_yellowcake_colour", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "milling", "claim": "The mine product, uranium oxide concentrate (mostly U3O8), is often called 'yellowcake' although it is usually khaki in colour; U3O8 contains about 85% uranium by mass.", "value": "85", "unit": "% U by mass in U3O8", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "WNA - Uranium Mining Overview", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/mining-of-uranium/uranium-mining-overview", "citation_date": "2026-10-06", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "WNA: ammonium or sodium diuranate products are dried at high temperatures to give about 85% uranium by mass; peroxide products can be dried at ambient temperature and contain about 80% U3O8. The page gives no calcining temperature and no chemistry for the colour change, so the explainer should say only that the high-temperature-dried product is dark (khaki/olive) rather than yellow." }, { "fact_id": "sc_conversion_capacity_cameco_port_hope", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "conversion", "claim": "Cameco's Port Hope conversion plant (Ontario, Canada) had a licensed UF6 capacity of 12,500 tU/yr and produced 10,600 tU in 2022.", "value": "12500; 10600", "unit": "tU/yr licensed; tU produced 2022", "qualifier": "2022, WNA Nuclear Fuel Report 2023 table", "citation_name": "WNA - Conversion and Deconversion", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/conversion-enrichment-and-fabrication/conversion-and-deconversion", "citation_date": "2024-11-20", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "sc_conversion_capacity_cnnc", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "conversion", "claim": "CNNC's conversion plants at Lanzhou and Hengyang (China) had a licensed capacity of 15,000 tU/yr and produced 10,500 tU in 2022.", "value": "15000; 10500", "unit": "tU/yr licensed; tU produced 2022", "qualifier": "2022, WNA Nuclear Fuel Report 2023 table", "citation_name": "WNA - Conversion and Deconversion", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/conversion-enrichment-and-fabrication/conversion-and-deconversion", "citation_date": "2024-11-20", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "sc_conversion_capacity_converdyn_metropolis", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "conversion", "claim": "ConverDyn's Metropolis plant (Illinois, USA) had a licensed capacity of 7,000 tU/yr and produced 0 tU in 2022, when it was idle.", "value": "7000; 0", "unit": "tU/yr licensed; tU produced 2022", "qualifier": "2022, WNA Nuclear Fuel Report 2023 table", "citation_name": "WNA - Conversion and Deconversion", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/conversion-enrichment-and-fabrication/conversion-and-deconversion", "citation_date": "2024-11-20", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "Metropolis restarted after 2022 (WNA); the restart year and production since were not captured today - verify before quoting." }, { "fact_id": "sc_conversion_capacity_orano", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "conversion", "claim": "Orano's French conversion complex (Malvesi for UF4 and Pierrelatte/Tricastin for UF6, the Comurhex II plants) had a licensed capacity of 15,000 tU/yr and produced 8,900 tU in 2022.", "value": "15000; 8900", "unit": "tU/yr licensed; tU produced 2022", "qualifier": "2022, WNA Nuclear Fuel Report 2023 table", "citation_name": "WNA - Conversion and Deconversion", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/conversion-enrichment-and-fabrication/conversion-and-deconversion", "citation_date": "2024-11-20", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "sc_conversion_capacity_rosatom_seversk", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "conversion", "claim": "Rosatom's Seversk (Siberian Chemical Combine) conversion plant had a licensed capacity of 12,500 tU/yr and produced 12,000 tU in 2022.", "value": "12500; 12000", "unit": "tU/yr licensed; tU produced 2022", "qualifier": "2022, WNA Nuclear Fuel Report 2023 table", "citation_name": "WNA - Conversion and Deconversion", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/conversion-enrichment-and-fabrication/conversion-and-deconversion", "citation_date": "2024-11-20", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "sc_conversion_capacity_world", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "conversion", "claim": "World UF6 conversion capacity was about 62,000 tU/yr licensed, of which about 42,000 tU was actually produced in 2022, across five commercial suppliers (Cameco, CNNC, ConverDyn, Orano, Rosatom).", "value": "62000; 42000", "unit": "tU/yr licensed; tU produced 2022", "qualifier": "2022, WNA Nuclear Fuel Report 2023 table", "citation_name": "WNA - Conversion and Deconversion", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/conversion-enrichment-and-fabrication/conversion-and-deconversion", "citation_date": "2024-11-20", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "The WNA conversion page carries no price data." }, { "fact_id": "sc_enrichment_capacity_rosatom", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "enrichment", "claim": "Rosatom (TENEX/TVEL plants) had 29,133 thousand SWU/yr of enrichment capacity in 2025, about 43% of the world total.", "value": "29133", "unit": "kSWU/yr", "qualifier": "2025, WNA Nuclear Fuel Report 2025 table; share computed from the table (29,133 / 68,076)", "citation_name": "WNA - Uranium Enrichment", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/conversion-enrichment-and-fabrication/uranium-enrichment", "citation_date": "2026-09-29", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "The 'about 40%' figure often quoted for Russia is consistent with this table (42.8% computed). The share is a Nuclear Atlas computation, not printed by WNA." }, { "fact_id": "sc_enrichment_capacity_urenco", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "enrichment", "claim": "Urenco (plants in the UK, Netherlands, Germany and USA) had 17,300 thousand SWU/yr of enrichment capacity in 2025, about 25% of the world total.", "value": "17300", "unit": "kSWU/yr", "qualifier": "2025, WNA Nuclear Fuel Report 2025 table; share computed (25.4%)", "citation_name": "WNA - Uranium Enrichment", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/conversion-enrichment-and-fabrication/uranium-enrichment", "citation_date": "2026-09-29", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "sc_enrichment_capacity_cnnc", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "enrichment", "claim": "CNNC (China) had 13,789 thousand SWU/yr of enrichment capacity in 2025, about 20% of the world total.", "value": "13789", "unit": "kSWU/yr", "qualifier": "2025, WNA Nuclear Fuel Report 2025 table; share computed (20.3%)", "citation_name": "WNA - Uranium Enrichment", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/conversion-enrichment-and-fabrication/uranium-enrichment", "citation_date": "2026-09-29", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "sc_enrichment_capacity_orano", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "enrichment", "claim": "Orano (Georges Besse II, France) had 7,500 thousand SWU/yr of enrichment capacity in 2025, about 11% of the world total.", "value": "7500", "unit": "kSWU/yr", "qualifier": "2025, WNA Nuclear Fuel Report 2025 table; share computed (11.0%)", "citation_name": "WNA - Uranium Enrichment", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/conversion-enrichment-and-fabrication/uranium-enrichment", "citation_date": "2026-09-29", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "sc_enrichment_capacity_world", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "enrichment", "claim": "World enrichment capacity in 2025 was 68,076 thousand SWU/yr (Rosatom 29,133; Urenco 17,300; CNNC 13,789; Orano 7,500; others 355).", "value": "68076", "unit": "kSWU/yr", "qualifier": "2025, WNA Nuclear Fuel Report 2025 table", "citation_name": "WNA - Uranium Enrichment", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/conversion-enrichment-and-fabrication/uranium-enrichment", "citation_date": "2026-09-29", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "The same WNA table gives 2022 capacities: Rosatom 27,100 of a 62,641 kSWU/yr total (43%)." }, { "fact_id": "sc_swu_per_kg_product", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "enrichment", "claim": "Producing 1 kg of uranium enriched to 5% U-235 requires about 7.9 SWU when the tails assay is 0.25% U-235.", "value": "7.9", "unit": "SWU per kg product", "qualifier": "5% product, 0.25% tails", "citation_name": "WNA - Uranium Enrichment", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/conversion-enrichment-and-fabrication/uranium-enrichment", "citation_date": "2026-09-29", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "sc_swu_per_reactor_year", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "enrichment", "claim": "A 1,000 MWe light-water reactor needs roughly 140,000 SWU of enrichment services per year.", "value": "140000", "unit": "SWU/yr", "qualifier": "typical 1,000 MWe LWR", "citation_name": "WNA - Uranium Enrichment", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/conversion-enrichment-and-fabrication/uranium-enrichment", "citation_date": "2026-09-29", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "sc_enrichment_cost_share", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "enrichment", "claim": "Enrichment accounts for about half of the cost of nuclear fuel and about 5% of the total cost of the electricity generated.", "value": "50; 5", "unit": "% of fuel cost; % of generation cost", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "WNA - Uranium Enrichment", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/conversion-enrichment-and-fabrication/uranium-enrichment", "citation_date": "2026-09-29", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "sc_centrifuge_energy", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "enrichment", "claim": "Gas centrifuge plants use about 40-50 kWh per SWU, compared with about 2,500 kWh per SWU for the now-closed gaseous diffusion plants.", "value": "40-50; 2500", "unit": "kWh/SWU", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "WNA - Uranium Enrichment", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/conversion-enrichment-and-fabrication/uranium-enrichment", "citation_date": "2026-09-29", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "sc_enrichment_grades", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "enrichment", "claim": "Industry usage: natural uranium is 0.7% U-235; low-enriched uranium (LEU) for today's reactors is 3-5% U-235; 'LEU+' runs up to 10%; high-assay LEU (HALEU) is 5-20%; weapons-grade highly enriched uranium is 90% or more.", "value": "0.7; 3-5; <=10; 5-20; >=90", "unit": "% U-235", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "WNA - Uranium Enrichment", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/conversion-enrichment-and-fabrication/uranium-enrichment", "citation_date": "2026-09-29", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "The 20% boundary between LEU and HEU is the IAEA/NRC definition (see fission page fact on HEU)." }, { "fact_id": "sc_haleu_definition_doe", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "enrichment", "claim": "The US Department of Energy defines HALEU as uranium enriched to between 5% and less than 20% U-235; existing US reactors run on fuel enriched up to 5%.", "value": "5 to <20", "unit": "% U-235", "qualifier": "DOE definition", "citation_name": "US DOE Office of Nuclear Energy - What is High-Assay Low-Enriched Uranium (HALEU)?", "citation_url": "https://www.energy.gov/ne/articles/what-high-assay-low-enriched-uranium-haleu", "citation_date": "2024-12-03", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "sc_haleu_nominal_assay", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "enrichment", "claim": "Commercial HALEU is specified at a nominal 19.75 weight percent U-235, just under the 20% HEU threshold (the assay written into Centrus's 2026 DOE contract).", "value": "19.75", "unit": "wt% U-235", "qualifier": "nominal commercial HALEU assay", "citation_name": "Centrus Energy Corp - Form 8-K (DOE HALEU contract of 30 June 2026)", "citation_url": "https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/0001065059/000162828026046801/leu-20260630.htm", "citation_date": "2026-07-02", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "", "notes": "DOE's HALEU article also mentions down-blending 'to between 5% and 19.75% U-235'." }, { "fact_id": "sc_haleu_demand_2035", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "enrichment", "claim": "DOE estimates US HALEU demand could reach 50 metric tons per year by 2035.", "value": "50", "unit": "t/yr", "qualifier": "DOE estimate, by 2035", "citation_name": "US DOE Office of Nuclear Energy - What is High-Assay Low-Enriched Uranium (HALEU)?", "citation_url": "https://www.energy.gov/ne/articles/what-high-assay-low-enriched-uranium-haleu", "citation_date": "2024-12-03", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "sc_haleu_centrus_contract_2026", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "enrichment", "claim": "On 30 June 2026 Centrus signed a $900 million firm-fixed-price DOE contract to build commercial HALEU enrichment capacity at Piketon, Ohio, and deliver one metric ton of uranium as HALEU UF6 (nominal 19.75 wt% U-235) by March 2032, with two options of five MTU each at $17 million per MTU.", "value": "900", "unit": "million USD", "qualifier": "contract of 2026-06-30, Form 8-K filed 2026-07-02", "citation_name": "Centrus Energy Corp - Form 8-K (DOE HALEU contract of 30 June 2026)", "citation_url": "https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/0001065059/000162828026046801/leu-20260630.htm", "citation_date": "2026-07-02", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "WNA Uranium Enrichment page (updated 2026-09-29) describes a '$900m DOE contract in January 2026 for 12 t/yr'; the 8-K describes the definitive contract executed 30 June 2026 with a 1 MTU base delivery. Treat January 2026 as the award announcement and June 2026 as the contract; do not quote 12 t/yr without a primary source.", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "sc_haleu_centrus_production", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "enrichment", "claim": "Centrus's demonstration cascade at Piketon had produced more than 1,900 kg of HALEU for DOE by the end of its demonstration contract in June 2026, at a rate of about 900 kg per year (DOE's December 2024 article reported more than 100 kg at that time).", "value": ">1900", "unit": "kg HALEU", "qualifier": "cumulative to June 2026 per WNA; DOE article 2024-12-03 gave >100 kg", "citation_name": "WNA - Uranium Enrichment", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/conversion-enrichment-and-fabrication/uranium-enrichment", "citation_date": "2026-09-29", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "Centrus's own HALEU page could not be fetched today; WNA adds that DOE's January 2026 award targets 12 t/yr with first new capacity in 2029 (see contradictions on sc_haleu_centrus_contract_2026)." }, { "fact_id": "sc_russia_ban_law", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "enrichment", "claim": "The US Prohibiting Russian Uranium Imports Act (Public Law 118-62) was approved on 13 May 2024 and bans imports of unirradiated low-enriched uranium produced in the Russian Federation or by a Russian entity, beginning 90 days after enactment (11 August 2024).", "value": "2024-05-13", "unit": "date", "qualifier": "effective 2024-08-11", "citation_name": "Public Law 118-62 - Prohibiting Russian Uranium Imports Act (govinfo)", "citation_url": "https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PLAW-118publ62/html/PLAW-118publ62.htm", "citation_date": "2024-05-13", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "sc_russia_ban_waivers", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "enrichment", "claim": "Under the Act the Secretary of Energy may waive the ban if no alternative viable source of LEU is available to keep a reactor operating or if import is in the national interest; waived imports are capped at 476,536 kg (2024), 470,376 kg (2025), 464,183 kg (2026) and 459,083 kg (2027), and all waivers terminate no later than 1 January 2028.", "value": "476536; 470376; 464183; 459083", "unit": "kg (LEU) per calendar year", "qualifier": "2024-2027 caps; waivers end 2028-01-01", "citation_name": "Public Law 118-62 - Prohibiting Russian Uranium Imports Act (govinfo)", "citation_url": "https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PLAW-118publ62/html/PLAW-118publ62.htm", "citation_date": "2024-05-13", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "", "notes": "The statute says 'kilograms'; trade press usually reads this as kgU. The project brief's 'waivers to 2027' matches: waivers may run through end-2027." }, { "fact_id": "sc_russia_ban_sunset", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "enrichment", "claim": "The import prohibition in Public Law 118-62 terminates on 31 December 2040.", "value": "2040-12-31", "unit": "date", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "Public Law 118-62 - Prohibiting Russian Uranium Imports Act (govinfo)", "citation_url": "https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PLAW-118publ62/html/PLAW-118publ62.htm", "citation_date": "2024-05-13", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "sc_russia_share_us_swu_2025", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "enrichment", "claim": "In 2025 US reactor owners bought 13 million SWU of enrichment services, 23% US-origin and 77% foreign; of the foreign-origin SWU, Russia supplied 26%, France 18%, the UK 14% and the Netherlands 8%.", "value": "26", "unit": "% of foreign-origin SWU purchased by US utilities", "qualifier": "2025 deliveries", "citation_name": "US EIA - 2025 Uranium Marketing Annual Report", "citation_url": "https://www.eia.gov/uranium/marketing/", "citation_date": "2026-08-13", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "", "notes": "EIA 2025 Uranium Marketing Annual Report (released 2026-07-29, re-released 2026-08-13); figures also reported by ANS 2026-08-05." }, { "fact_id": "sc_fuel_pellet_size", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "fabrication", "claim": "Enriched UO2 powder is pressed into ceramic pellets just under 1 cm in diameter and a little over 1 cm long, which are sintered at about 1,750 C.", "value": "~1 x ~1", "unit": "cm (diameter x length)", "qualifier": "typical LWR pellet; sintering ~1750 C", "citation_name": "WNA - Fuel Fabrication", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/conversion-enrichment-and-fabrication/fuel-fabrication", "citation_date": "2026-08-04", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "sc_pwr_assembly_17x17", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "fabrication", "claim": "A typical PWR fuel assembly is a 17 x 17 square array of fuel rods and guide tubes, 4-5 m long and about 20 cm across, weighing about half a tonne.", "value": "17x17; 4-5; ~20; ~0.5", "unit": "array; m; cm; t", "qualifier": "typical PWR assembly", "citation_name": "WNA - Fuel Fabrication", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/conversion-enrichment-and-fabrication/fuel-fabrication", "citation_date": "2026-08-04", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "sc_pwr_core_inventory", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "fabrication", "claim": "The core of a 1,100 MWe PWR holds 193 fuel assemblies containing more than 50,000 fuel rods and about 18 million fuel pellets.", "value": "193; >50000; ~18 million", "unit": "assemblies; rods; pellets", "qualifier": "1,100 MWe PWR", "citation_name": "WNA - Fuel Fabrication", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/conversion-enrichment-and-fabrication/fuel-fabrication", "citation_date": "2026-08-04", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "WNA 'What is Uranium' page states 51,000 rods / 18 million pellets for a 1,000 MWe reactor." }, { "fact_id": "sc_fabrication_cost_share", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "fabrication", "claim": "Fuel fabrication accounts for less than 20% of the cost of nuclear fuel.", "value": "<20", "unit": "% of fuel cost", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "WNA - Fuel Fabrication", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/conversion-enrichment-and-fabrication/fuel-fabrication", "citation_date": "2026-08-04", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "sc_burnup_trend", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "fabrication", "claim": "Typical LWR fuel burn-up has risen from about 40 GWd/tU to more than 60 GWd/tU for the best fuel; about 50 GWd/t is typical in the USA.", "value": "40 -> >60; ~50 typical US", "unit": "GWd/tU", "qualifier": "LWR fuel", "citation_name": "WNA - Fuel Fabrication", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/conversion-enrichment-and-fabrication/fuel-fabrication", "citation_date": "2026-08-04", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "US typical ~50 GWd/t is from the WNA Nuclear Power Reactors page (updated 2026-08-05)." }, { "fact_id": "sc_triso_particles", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "fabrication", "claim": "TRISO fuel particles for high-temperature gas reactors are less than 1 mm across, with a uranium kernel of about 0.5 mm enriched up to 20%, and run at 750-950 C.", "value": "<1; ~0.5; <=20; 750-950", "unit": "mm; mm; % U-235; C", "qualifier": "HTR/HTGR fuel", "citation_name": "WNA - Fuel Fabrication", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/conversion-enrichment-and-fabrication/fuel-fabrication", "citation_date": "2026-08-04", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "sc_annual_reload_truckloads", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "transport", "claim": "A typical large LWR takes about 27 t of UO2 fuel (24 tU) a year, which travels to the plant in 4-5 truckloads.", "value": "27; 24; 4-5", "unit": "t UO2; tU; truckloads", "qualifier": "typical LWR annual reload", "citation_name": "WNA - Transport of Radioactive Materials", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/transport-of-nuclear-materials/transport-of-radioactive-materials", "citation_date": "2026-08-16", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "sc_spent_fuel_pool_years", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "storage", "claim": "Used fuel is cooled in water-filled pools at the reactor for at least five years before it can be moved to dry storage.", "value": ">=5", "unit": "years", "qualifier": "minimum pool cooling before dry cask storage", "citation_name": "WNA - Radioactive Waste Management", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-wastes/radioactive-waste-management", "citation_date": "2025-11-22", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "sc_dry_cask_contents", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "storage", "claim": "A dry storage cask typically holds about 40 PWR fuel assemblies and is limited to about 45 kW of decay heat.", "value": "~40; <=45", "unit": "assemblies; kW", "qualifier": "typical dual-purpose cask", "citation_name": "WNA - Radioactive Waste Management", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-wastes/radioactive-waste-management", "citation_date": "2025-11-22", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "sc_transport_u3o8_drums", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "transport", "claim": "Uranium oxide concentrate is shipped in 200-litre steel drums holding about 400 kg of U3O8 each.", "value": "200; ~400", "unit": "litres; kg U3O8 per drum", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "WNA - Transport of Radioactive Materials", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/transport-of-nuclear-materials/transport-of-radioactive-materials", "citation_date": "2026-08-16", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "sc_transport_48y_cylinder", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "transport", "claim": "Natural UF6 is shipped to enrichment plants in Type 48Y steel cylinders, 122 cm in diameter, holding about 12.5 t of UF6 (8.4 tU).", "value": "12.5; 8.4", "unit": "t UF6; tU", "qualifier": "Type 48Y cylinder, 122 cm diameter", "citation_name": "WNA - Transport of Radioactive Materials", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/transport-of-nuclear-materials/transport-of-radioactive-materials", "citation_date": "2026-08-16", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "sc_transport_30b_cylinder", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "transport", "claim": "Enriched UF6 is shipped in Type 30B cylinders, 76 cm in diameter and 2.1 m long, holding 2.27 t of UF6 (1.54 tU), each inside a protective overpack.", "value": "2.27; 1.54", "unit": "t UF6; tU", "qualifier": "Type 30B cylinder", "citation_name": "WNA - Transport of Radioactive Materials", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/transport-of-nuclear-materials/transport-of-radioactive-materials", "citation_date": "2026-08-16", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "The project brief quoted 2.277 t UF6 (the ANSI N14.1 maximum fill limit); WNA prints 2.27 t. Use 2.27 t unless citing the standard directly.", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "sc_transport_uf6_cylinder_tests", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "transport", "claim": "UF6 cylinders are hydraulically tested to 1.4 MPa and the packages must survive drop tests and a fully engulfing 800 C fire for 30 minutes.", "value": "1.4; 800; 30", "unit": "MPa; C; minutes", "qualifier": "package test requirements as summarised by WNA", "citation_name": "WNA - Transport of Radioactive Materials", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/transport-of-nuclear-materials/transport-of-radioactive-materials", "citation_date": "2026-08-16", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "sc_transport_type_b_casks", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "transport", "claim": "Used fuel travels in Type B casks weighing about 125 t loaded and carrying up to about 20 t of fuel; more than 25,000 used-fuel shipments have been made since 1971 without any release of radioactivity.", "value": "~125; ~20; >25000", "unit": "t loaded; t fuel; shipments since 1971", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "WNA - Transport of Radioactive Materials", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/transport-of-nuclear-materials/transport-of-radioactive-materials", "citation_date": "2026-08-16", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "sc_reprocessing_la_hague", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "reprocessing", "claim": "Orano's La Hague plant in France has a reprocessing capacity of 1,700 t of used fuel per year, the largest in the world.", "value": "1700", "unit": "t/yr", "qualifier": "LWR fuel", "citation_name": "WNA - Processing of Used Nuclear Fuel", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/fuel-recycling/processing-of-used-nuclear-fuel", "citation_date": "2024-08-23", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "sc_reprocessing_rokkasho", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "reprocessing", "claim": "Japan's Rokkasho reprocessing plant has a design capacity of 800 t/yr; Russia's Mayak RT-1 plant has 400 t/yr.", "value": "800; 400", "unit": "t/yr", "qualifier": "design capacities; Rokkasho completion has been repeatedly delayed", "citation_name": "WNA - Processing of Used Nuclear Fuel", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/fuel-recycling/processing-of-used-nuclear-fuel", "citation_date": "2024-08-23", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "Current Rokkasho start-up date was not verified today - keep 'not yet in commercial operation' only with a dated source." }, { "fact_id": "sc_reprocessing_share", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "reprocessing", "claim": "About 400,000 t of used fuel has been discharged from reactors worldwide and about 30% of it has been reprocessed.", "value": "~400000; ~30", "unit": "t; %", "qualifier": "cumulative to 2024 per WNA reprocessing page", "citation_name": "WNA - Processing of Used Nuclear Fuel", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/fuel-recycling/processing-of-used-nuclear-fuel", "citation_date": "2024-08-23", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "WNA Radioactive Waste Management page (updated 2025-11-22) quotes the IAEA figure of about 430,000 t produced with about 263,000 t in storage; the pages carry different cut-off years.", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "sc_mox_capacity", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "reprocessing", "claim": "World MOX fuel fabrication capacity is about 480 t/yr.", "value": "~480", "unit": "t/yr", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "WNA - Processing of Used Nuclear Fuel", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/fuel-recycling/processing-of-used-nuclear-fuel", "citation_date": "2024-08-23", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "sc_reactor_requirements_annual", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "demand", "claim": "The world's roughly 440 operable reactors require some 80,000 t of uranium oxide concentrate containing about 67,500 tU each year.", "value": "~80000; ~67500", "unit": "t U3O8; tU", "qualifier": "annual requirement per WNA (page updated 2024-08-23)", "citation_name": "WNA - Uranium Markets", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/uranium-resources/uranium-markets", "citation_date": "2024-08-23", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "sc_inventories_end_2022", "page": "supply_chain", "topic": "demand", "claim": "Commercial uranium inventories at the end of 2022 were about 36,000 tU in Europe, 40,000 tU in the USA and 132,000 tU in China.", "value": "36000; 40000; 132000", "unit": "tU", "qualifier": "end-2022", "citation_name": "WNA - Uranium Markets", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/uranium-resources/uranium-markets", "citation_date": "2024-08-23", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "pu_spot_price_2026_09", "page": "pricing_units", "topic": "price_indicators", "claim": "The month-end uranium spot price indicator for September 2026 was US$89.63 per lb U3O8.", "value": "89.63", "unit": "USD/lb U3O8", "qualifier": "month-end September 2026, Cameco industry average of UxC and TradeTech", "citation_name": "Cameco - Uranium Price (industry average of UxC and TradeTech month-end prices)", "citation_url": "https://www.cameco.com/invest/markets/uranium-price", "citation_date": "2026-10-09", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "", "notes": "Matches data/uranium_prices.csv row 2026-09." }, { "fact_id": "pu_long_term_price_2026_09", "page": "pricing_units", "topic": "price_indicators", "claim": "The month-end long-term uranium price indicator for September 2026 was US$96.50 per lb U3O8.", "value": "96.50", "unit": "USD/lb U3O8", "qualifier": "month-end September 2026, Cameco industry average of UxC and TradeTech", "citation_name": "Cameco - Uranium Price (industry average of UxC and TradeTech month-end prices)", "citation_url": "https://www.cameco.com/invest/markets/uranium-price", "citation_date": "2026-10-09", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "", "notes": "Matches data/uranium_prices.csv row 2026-09." }, { "fact_id": "pu_spot_price_2026_07", "page": "pricing_units", "topic": "price_indicators", "claim": "The end-of-July 2026 spot price was about US$86.4 per lb U3O8, roughly unchanged since February 2026.", "value": "86.38", "unit": "USD/lb U3O8", "qualifier": "month-end July 2026", "citation_name": "Cameco - Uranium Price (industry average of UxC and TradeTech month-end prices)", "citation_url": "https://www.cameco.com/invest/markets/uranium-price", "citation_date": "2026-10-09", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "ANS Nuclear Newswire (2026-08-05) printed US$86.36 per pound citing Cameco; data/uranium_prices.csv (from the Cameco page) has 86.38. Difference of 2 cents - quote one decimal or cite Cameco directly.", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "pu_cameco_indicator_method", "page": "pricing_units", "topic": "price_indicators", "claim": "Cameco's published spot and long-term price series are industry averages of the month-end prices published by the two price reporters UxC and TradeTech.", "value": "", "unit": "", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "Cameco - Uranium Price (industry average of UxC and TradeTech month-end prices)", "citation_url": "https://www.cameco.com/invest/markets/uranium-price", "citation_date": "2026-10-09", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "pu_uxc_indicators", "page": "pricing_units", "topic": "price_indicators", "claim": "UxC publishes a weekly Ux U3O8 spot price and month-end indicators for U3O8, North American and European conversion (per kgU), North American UF6 and SWU, plus long-term prices for U3O8, conversion and SWU; the values are behind a login and the long-term prices are on the subscriber site.", "value": "", "unit": "", "qualifier": "UxC product list as shown on its public price page", "citation_name": "UxC - Nuclear Fuel Price Indicators (public page)", "citation_url": "https://www.uxc.com/p/prices/uxcprices.aspx", "citation_date": "2026-10-09", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "", "notes": "UxC: spot prices reflect 'the most competitive offers available' with a Monday 2:30 pm Eastern cut-off; all prices except the weekly U3O8 price are published the last Monday of each month." }, { "fact_id": "pu_tradetech_indicators", "page": "pricing_units", "topic": "price_indicators", "claim": "TradeTech publishes the NUEXCO Exchange Value (U3O8 spot), a Conversion Value expressed in US dollars per kgU as UF6 determined as of the last day of the month, a UF6 Value and an SWU Value; current values require a login or subscription.", "value": "", "unit": "", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "TradeTech - Conversion Value (indicator description)", "citation_url": "https://www.uranium.info/conversion_value.php", "citation_date": "2026-10-09", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "pu_swu_price_us_2025", "page": "pricing_units", "topic": "price_indicators", "claim": "The weighted-average price paid by US reactor owners for enrichment services in 2025 was US$108.70 per SWU, up 11% from 2024.", "value": "108.70", "unit": "USD/SWU", "qualifier": "US purchases, 2025 deliveries (EIA)", "citation_name": "US EIA - 2025 Uranium Marketing Annual Report", "citation_url": "https://www.eia.gov/uranium/marketing/", "citation_date": "2026-08-13", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "pu_unit_tu_to_tu3o8", "page": "pricing_units", "topic": "units", "claim": "1 tonne of uranium (tU) is contained in 1.17924 tonnes of U3O8.", "value": "1.17924", "unit": "t U3O8 per tU", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "TradeTech - Unit Conversion Table", "citation_url": "https://uranium.info/unit_conversion_table.php", "citation_date": "2026-10-09", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "", "notes": "Project convention 1 tU = 1.1792 t U3O8 is this factor rounded." }, { "fact_id": "pu_unit_kgu_to_lb_u3o8", "page": "pricing_units", "topic": "units", "claim": "1 kg of uranium is contained in 2.59979 lb of U3O8.", "value": "2.59979", "unit": "lb U3O8 per kgU", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "TradeTech - Unit Conversion Table", "citation_url": "https://uranium.info/unit_conversion_table.php", "citation_date": "2026-10-09", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "", "notes": "Project convention 1 kgU = 2.5998 lb U3O8 is this factor rounded. Also 1 MT U = 2,599.79 lb U3O8." }, { "fact_id": "pu_unit_lb_kg", "page": "pricing_units", "topic": "units", "claim": "1 lb = 0.45359 kg and 1 kg = 2.20462 lb; a metric tonne is 2,204.62 lb and a short ton 2,000 lb.", "value": "0.45359; 2.20462; 2204.62; 2000", "unit": "kg; lb; lb; lb", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "TradeTech - Unit Conversion Table", "citation_url": "https://uranium.info/unit_conversion_table.php", "citation_date": "2026-10-09", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "pu_unit_uf6", "page": "pricing_units", "topic": "units", "claim": "1 lb of uranium as UF6 corresponds to 1.47889 lb of UF6; converting U3O8 to UF6 is usually booked with a 0.5% conversion loss (1 lb U3O8 = 0.84376 lb U in UF6).", "value": "1.47889; 0.84376", "unit": "lb UF6 per lb U; lb U in UF6 per lb U3O8", "qualifier": "TradeTech convention, 0.5% conversion loss", "citation_name": "TradeTech - Unit Conversion Table", "citation_url": "https://uranium.info/unit_conversion_table.php", "citation_date": "2026-10-09", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "pu_u3o8_uranium_content", "page": "pricing_units", "topic": "units", "claim": "U3O8 contains about 85% uranium by mass (1 / 1.17924 = 84.8%).", "value": "84.8", "unit": "% U", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "WNA - Uranium Mining Overview", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/mining-of-uranium/uranium-mining-overview", "citation_date": "2026-10-06", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "pu_term_vs_spot_pricing", "page": "pricing_units", "topic": "contracting", "claim": "Prices in term contracts are often related to the spot price indicator at the time of delivery, and producers selling directly to utilities obtain a higher price than the spot market, reflecting security of supply.", "value": "", "unit": "", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "WNA - Uranium Markets", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/uranium-resources/uranium-markets", "citation_date": "2024-08-23", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "pu_spot_share_of_trade", "page": "pricing_units", "topic": "contracting", "claim": "The spot market's share of uranium trade roughly doubled from 2008 to about one-quarter of volume over the last decade; most trade is via 3-15 year term contracts.", "value": "~25", "unit": "% of volume", "qualifier": "last decade per WNA (page updated 2024-08-23)", "citation_name": "WNA - Uranium Markets", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/uranium-resources/uranium-markets", "citation_date": "2024-08-23", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "co_term_contract_duration", "page": "contracting", "topic": "practice", "claim": "Most uranium trade is via term contracts of 3-15 years' duration.", "value": "3-15", "unit": "years", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "WNA - Uranium Markets", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/uranium-resources/uranium-markets", "citation_date": "2024-08-23", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "co_eia_purchases_2025", "page": "contracting", "topic": "eia_umar", "claim": "Owners and operators of US civilian nuclear power reactors purchased 46.9 million lb U3O8 equivalent in 2025 at a weighted-average price of US$58.46 per lb.", "value": "46.9; 58.46", "unit": "million lb U3O8e; USD/lb", "qualifier": "2025 deliveries", "citation_name": "US EIA - 2025 Uranium Marketing Annual Report", "citation_url": "https://www.eia.gov/uranium/marketing/", "citation_date": "2026-08-13", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "co_eia_long_term_share_2025", "page": "contracting", "topic": "eia_umar", "claim": "87% of the uranium delivered to US utilities in 2025 came under long-term contracts at a weighted-average US$55.91 per lb, and 13% under spot contracts at US$76.01 per lb.", "value": "87; 55.91; 13; 76.01", "unit": "%; USD/lb; %; USD/lb", "qualifier": "2025 deliveries", "citation_name": "US EIA - 2025 Uranium Marketing Annual Report", "citation_url": "https://www.eia.gov/uranium/marketing/", "citation_date": "2026-08-13", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "co_eia_origin_2025", "page": "contracting", "topic": "eia_umar", "claim": "By origin, US utilities' 2025 uranium came 32% from Canada, 28% from Kazakhstan, 15% from Australia, 7% from Uzbekistan, 4% from Namibia and 7% from the United States.", "value": "32; 28; 15; 7; 4; 7", "unit": "%", "qualifier": "2025 deliveries", "citation_name": "US EIA - 2025 Uranium Marketing Annual Report", "citation_url": "https://www.eia.gov/uranium/marketing/", "citation_date": "2026-08-13", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "co_eia_new_contracts_2025", "page": "contracting", "topic": "eia_umar", "claim": "US utilities signed 22 new uranium purchase contracts in 2025.", "value": "22", "unit": "contracts", "qualifier": "2025", "citation_name": "US EIA - 2025 Uranium Marketing Annual Report", "citation_url": "https://www.eia.gov/uranium/marketing/", "citation_date": "2026-08-13", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "co_eia_contracted_deliveries_2026_2035", "page": "contracting", "topic": "eia_umar", "claim": "Maximum deliveries under US utilities' existing purchase contracts for 2026-2035 total 174 million lb U3O8e.", "value": "174", "unit": "million lb U3O8e", "qualifier": "2026-2035 cumulative", "citation_name": "US EIA - 2025 Uranium Marketing Annual Report", "citation_url": "https://www.eia.gov/uranium/marketing/", "citation_date": "2026-08-13", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "co_eia_unfilled_requirements", "page": "contracting", "topic": "eia_umar", "claim": "US utilities' unfilled uranium requirements for 2025-2035 were 186 million lb U3O8e, i.e. demand not yet covered by contracts.", "value": "186", "unit": "million lb U3O8e", "qualifier": "2025-2035 cumulative, as of end-2025", "citation_name": "US EIA - 2025 Uranium Marketing Annual Report", "citation_url": "https://www.eia.gov/uranium/marketing/", "citation_date": "2026-08-13", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "co_eia_swu_2025", "page": "contracting", "topic": "eia_umar", "claim": "US utilities purchased 13 million SWU of enrichment services in 2025 at a weighted-average US$108.70 per SWU.", "value": "13; 108.70", "unit": "million SWU; USD/SWU", "qualifier": "2025", "citation_name": "US EIA - 2025 Uranium Marketing Annual Report", "citation_url": "https://www.eia.gov/uranium/marketing/", "citation_date": "2026-08-13", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "co_eia_inventories_2025", "page": "contracting", "topic": "eia_umar", "claim": "US commercial uranium inventories (owners/operators and suppliers) totalled 170 million lb U3O8e at the end of 2025.", "value": "170", "unit": "million lb U3O8e", "qualifier": "end-2025", "citation_name": "US EIA - 2025 Uranium Marketing Annual Report", "citation_url": "https://www.eia.gov/uranium/marketing/", "citation_date": "2026-08-13", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "", "notes": "Breakdown between utility-held and supplier-held inventories not captured; check EIA Table 19 before quoting a split." }, { "fact_id": "co_foreign_purchases_sales_2025", "page": "contracting", "topic": "eia_umar", "claim": "US suppliers and utilities bought 30 million lb U3O8e from foreign sources at US$56.80 per lb and sold 4 million lb to foreign buyers at US$75.05 per lb in 2025.", "value": "30; 56.80; 4; 75.05", "unit": "million lb; USD/lb; million lb; USD/lb", "qualifier": "2025", "citation_name": "ANS Nuclear Newswire - Uranium prices steady as EIA releases annual market report", "citation_url": "https://www.ans.org/news/article-8270/uranium-prices-steady-as-eia-releases-annual-market-report/", "citation_date": "2026-08-05", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "Figures as reported by ANS from the EIA 2025 UMAR." }, { "fact_id": "fi_what_is_fission", "page": "fission", "topic": "fission", "claim": "Nuclear fission occurs when a uranium-235 nucleus absorbs a neutron and splits into two lighter fragments, releasing about 200 MeV of energy and, on average, 2.45 further neutrons that can sustain a chain reaction.", "value": "200; 2.45", "unit": "MeV per fission; neutrons per fission", "qualifier": "U-235 thermal fission", "citation_name": "WNA - Physics of Nuclear Energy", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/introduction/physics-of-nuclear-energy", "citation_date": "2026-03-30", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "WNA gives about 210 MeV for Pu-239 fission." }, { "fact_id": "fi_natural_abundance_precise", "page": "fission", "topic": "isotopes", "claim": "Natural uranium is 0.7204% U-235, 99.2742% U-238 and 0.0054% U-234 by atom fraction (standard atomic weight 238.02891).", "value": "0.7204; 99.2742; 0.0054", "unit": "atom %", "qualifier": "NIST isotopic composition, printed as 0.007204(6), 0.992742(10), 0.000054(5)", "citation_name": "NIST - Atomic Weights and Isotopic Compositions: Uranium", "citation_url": "https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/Compositions/stand_alone.pl?ele=U", "citation_date": "2026-10-09", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "", "notes": "Supports the brief's rounded 0.72% / 99.27%. Industry pages round to 0.7% / 99.3%." }, { "fact_id": "fi_natural_abundance_rounded", "page": "fission", "topic": "isotopes", "claim": "Industry and regulators describe natural uranium as approximately 99.3% U-238 and 0.7% U-235 (with a trace of U-234).", "value": "99.3; 0.7", "unit": "%", "qualifier": "by mass", "citation_name": "US NRC - Uranium Enrichment (fuel cycle facilities)", "citation_url": "https://www.nrc.gov/materials/fuel-cycle-fac/ur-enrichment.html", "citation_date": "2026-09-15", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "", "notes": "Same figures on the NRC glossary 'natural uranium' entry and the WNA 'What is uranium' page." }, { "fact_id": "fi_fissile_vs_fertile", "page": "fission", "topic": "isotopes", "claim": "U-238 and Th-232 are the main naturally occurring fertile isotopes: U-238 captures a neutron to become U-239, which decays via neptunium-239 to fissile Pu-239 - the reason reactors breed and burn plutonium.", "value": "", "unit": "", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "WNA - Physics of Nuclear Energy", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/introduction/physics-of-nuclear-energy", "citation_date": "2026-03-30", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "fi_fast_vs_thermal_neutrons", "page": "fission", "topic": "neutronics", "claim": "Neutrons from fission are 'fast' (energies above about 1 MeV); in a thermal reactor a moderator slows them to around 0.02 eV, where U-235 is far more likely to fission.", "value": ">1 MeV; ~0.02 eV", "unit": "neutron energy", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "WNA - Physics of Nuclear Energy", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/introduction/physics-of-nuclear-energy", "citation_date": "2026-03-30", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "fi_moderators", "page": "fission", "topic": "neutronics", "claim": "The moderator slows fission neutrons so that they cause more fission; it is usually ordinary (light) water, heavy water or graphite.", "value": "", "unit": "", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "WNA - Nuclear Power Reactors", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-power-reactors/nuclear-power-reactors", "citation_date": "2026-08-05", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "WNA physics page: with natural uranium fuel the only suitable moderators are graphite and heavy water; ordinary (light) water can be used once the fuel is enriched." }, { "fact_id": "fi_moderators_natural_uranium", "page": "fission", "topic": "neutronics", "claim": "With natural uranium fuel the only suitable moderators are graphite and heavy water; ordinary (light) water can be used as moderator once the fuel is enriched.", "value": "", "unit": "", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "WNA - Physics of Nuclear Energy", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/introduction/physics-of-nuclear-energy", "citation_date": "2026-03-30", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "Read on the WNA physics page on 2026-10-09 and first recorded as a note on fi_moderators; made a fact of its own on 2026-10-10 so that pages can cite it." }, { "fact_id": "fi_control_rods", "page": "fission", "topic": "control", "claim": "Control rods or blades made of neutron-absorbing material such as cadmium, hafnium or boron are inserted into or withdrawn from the core to control or halt the chain reaction.", "value": "", "unit": "", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "WNA - Nuclear Power Reactors", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-power-reactors/nuclear-power-reactors", "citation_date": "2026-08-05", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "fi_delayed_neutrons", "page": "fission", "topic": "control", "claim": "About 0.66% of the neutrons from U-235 fission are 'delayed' - emitted by fission products up to tens of seconds later (the longest-lived precursor group has a half-life of about 56 s) - and this delay is what makes a reactor controllable.", "value": "0.66; ~56", "unit": "% of fission neutrons; s", "qualifier": "U-235", "citation_name": "WNA - Physics of Nuclear Energy", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/introduction/physics-of-nuclear-energy", "citation_date": "2026-03-30", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "fi_coolants", "page": "fission", "topic": "coolant", "claim": "The coolant carries heat out of the core: ordinary water in PWRs and BWRs, heavy water in PHWRs, carbon dioxide in British AGRs, helium in high-temperature gas reactors and liquid sodium in fast reactors.", "value": "", "unit": "", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "WNA - Nuclear Power Reactors", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-power-reactors/nuclear-power-reactors", "citation_date": "2026-08-05", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "Per-type detail in the reactor_families page." }, { "fact_id": "fi_pwr_conditions", "page": "fission", "topic": "coolant", "claim": "In a PWR the water in the core reaches about 325 C and is kept under about 150 times atmospheric pressure so that it does not boil; steam is raised in separate steam generators.", "value": "~325; ~150", "unit": "C; atmospheres", "qualifier": "typical PWR", "citation_name": "WNA - Nuclear Power Reactors", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-power-reactors/nuclear-power-reactors", "citation_date": "2026-08-05", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "fi_enrichment_commercial", "page": "fission", "topic": "enrichment", "claim": "Commercial reactor fuel is enriched to 3 to 5% U-235 from the natural 0.7%.", "value": "3-5", "unit": "% U-235", "qualifier": "current LWR fuel", "citation_name": "US NRC - Uranium Enrichment (fuel cycle facilities)", "citation_url": "https://www.nrc.gov/materials/fuel-cycle-fac/ur-enrichment.html", "citation_date": "2026-09-15", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "fi_enrichment_grades", "page": "fission", "topic": "enrichment", "claim": "Enrichment vocabulary: LEU up to 5% (current fuel), 'LEU+' up to 10%, HALEU 5-20% (DOE: 5% to less than 20%), weapons-grade at least 90% U-235; 20% is the boundary above which uranium counts as highly enriched (HEU).", "value": "<=5; <=10; 5-<20; >=90", "unit": "% U-235", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "WNA - Uranium Enrichment", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/conversion-enrichment-and-fabrication/uranium-enrichment", "citation_date": "2026-09-29", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "DOE defines HALEU as 'enriched between 5% and less than 20%'; neither the WNA nor the NRC pages read today print an explicit 'HEU = 20% or more' sentence, but DOE's upper bound implies it. The NRC glossary HEU entry could not be fetched." }, { "fact_id": "fi_fuel_pellet_rod_assembly", "page": "fission", "topic": "fuel", "claim": "Fuel is ceramic UO2 pellets about 1 cm across stacked in zirconium-alloy tubes (fuel rods); a PWR assembly is a 17 x 17 array 4-5 m long, and a 1,100 MWe core holds 193 assemblies, more than 50,000 rods and about 18 million pellets.", "value": "17x17; 4-5; 193; >50000; ~18 million", "unit": "array; m; assemblies; rods; pellets", "qualifier": "typical PWR", "citation_name": "WNA - Fuel Fabrication", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/conversion-enrichment-and-fabrication/fuel-fabrication", "citation_date": "2026-08-04", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "Full fabrication detail in supply_chain facts sc_fuel_pellet_size, sc_pwr_assembly_17x17, sc_pwr_core_inventory." }, { "fact_id": "fi_annual_fuel_1000mwe", "page": "fission", "topic": "fuel", "claim": "A 1,000 MWe reactor needs about 27 t of fresh enriched fuel a year, made from roughly 200 t of U3O8 concentrate (249 t UOC containing 211 tU for 4.5%-enriched fuel; 192 t UOC / 163 tU at 5%).", "value": "~27; ~200 (249 at 4.5%, 192 at 5%)", "unit": "t enriched fuel; t U3O8", "qualifier": "typical 1,000 MWe LWR, WNA material balance", "citation_name": "WNA - Nuclear Fuel Cycle Overview", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/introduction/nuclear-fuel-cycle-overview", "citation_date": "2025-09-23", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "fi_refuelling_cycle", "page": "fission", "topic": "fuel", "claim": "About one-third of the fuel is replaced at each refuelling every 12 to 18 months (some plants run 24-month cycles), so an assembly spends roughly three years (18-36 months of cycles) in the core.", "value": "1/3; 12-18 (up to 24); ~3", "unit": "fraction; months; years", "qualifier": "typical LWR", "citation_name": "WNA - Nuclear Fuel Cycle Overview", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/introduction/nuclear-fuel-cycle-overview", "citation_date": "2025-09-23", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "The brief's '3-6 years' was not supported; WNA says 'about three years'." }, { "fact_id": "fi_burnup_typical", "page": "fission", "topic": "fuel", "claim": "Fuel burn-up - the energy extracted per tonne of uranium - has risen from about 40 GWd/tU to over 60 GWd/tU for the best fuel; about 50 GWd/t is typical in the USA.", "value": "40 -> >60; ~50", "unit": "GWd/tU", "qualifier": "LWR", "citation_name": "WNA - Fuel Fabrication", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/conversion-enrichment-and-fabrication/fuel-fabrication", "citation_date": "2026-08-04", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "fi_energy_density", "page": "fission", "topic": "fuel", "claim": "Uranium is about 18.7 times denser than water, and a single 1,000 MWe reactor core contains about 51,000 fuel rods and 18 million pellets.", "value": "18.7; 51000; 18 million", "unit": "x water density; rods; pellets", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "WNA - What is Uranium? How Does it Work?", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/introduction/what-is-uranium-how-does-it-work", "citation_date": "2026-10-06", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "rf_world_operating_pris", "page": "reactor_families", "topic": "fleet", "claim": "The IAEA PRIS database listed 417 reactors 'in operation' worldwide with 379,700 MWe net capacity (update of 23 July 2026): 308 PWR, 45 BWR, 46 PHWR, 8 GCR, 7 LWGR, 2 FBR, 1 HTGR.", "value": "417; 379700", "unit": "reactors; MWe net", "qualifier": "PRIS 'in operation' status, 2026-07-23", "citation_name": "IAEA PRIS - Operational Reactors by Type", "citation_url": "https://pris.iaea.org/PRIS/WorldStatistics/OperationalReactorsByType.aspx", "citation_date": "2026-07-23", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "WNA Nuclear Power Reactors page (updated 2026-08-05) counts 441 'operable' reactors because it includes Japan's idle units that PRIS lists as suspended. Nuclear Atlas data/reactors.csv has 421 'operating' plus 21 'suspended' (WNA database, Oct 2026). State which definition is used.", "notes": "PRIS by type (MWe net): PWR 297,690; BWR 45,020; PHWR 24,300; GCR 4,685; LWGR 6,475; FBR 1,380; HTGR 150." }, { "fact_id": "rf_world_operable_wna", "page": "reactor_families", "topic": "fleet", "claim": "WNA counts 441 operable power reactors: 316 PWR (306.2 GWe), 60 BWR (61.0 GWe), 47 PHWR (24.5 GWe), 8 AGR (4.7 GWe), 7 LWGR (6.5 GWe), 2 FNR (1.4 GWe) and 1 HTGR (0.2 GWe).", "value": "441", "unit": "reactors", "qualifier": "WNA 'operable' (includes suspended Japanese units), page updated 2026-08-05", "citation_name": "WNA - Nuclear Power Reactors", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-power-reactors/nuclear-power-reactors", "citation_date": "2026-08-05", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "See rf_world_operating_pris (PRIS 417 in operation). PRIS lists the single HTGR (HTR-PM) at 150 MWe net whereas WNA rounds to 0.2 GWe and the plant is rated 210 MWe gross (two 250 MWt modules on one turbine).", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "rf_pwr", "page": "reactor_families", "topic": "pwr", "claim": "The pressurised water reactor (PWR) is the most common type: ordinary water at over 300 C is kept under about 150 atmospheres in a primary circuit and gives up its heat in steam generators to a separate secondary circuit that drives the turbine.", "value": "316 (WNA) / 308 (PRIS)", "unit": "operable / in operation", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "WNA - Nuclear Power Reactors", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-power-reactors/nuclear-power-reactors", "citation_date": "2026-08-05", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "rf_pwr_secondary_circuit", "page": "reactor_families", "topic": "pwr", "claim": "In a PWR the secondary circuit is under less pressure than the primary circuit and its water boils in the heat exchangers, which are thus steam generators; the steam drives the turbine to produce electricity, and is then condensed and returned to the heat exchangers in contact with the primary circuit.", "value": "", "unit": "", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "WNA - Nuclear Power Reactors", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-power-reactors/nuclear-power-reactors", "citation_date": "2026-08-05", "verified_on": "2026-10-10", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "WNA Nuclear Power Reactors page (updated 5 August 2026), 'Components of a nuclear reactor' section, read 2026-10-10 via scripts/fetch (branch raw-fetch-pwr-parts)." }, { "fact_id": "rf_steam_generator", "page": "reactor_families", "topic": "pwr", "claim": "A PWR steam generator is a large heat exchanger in which the high-pressure primary coolant makes steam for the turbine in the secondary circuit; reactors have up to six loops, each with a steam generator, and each unit weighs up to 800 tonnes and contains from 300 to 16,000 tubes about 2 cm in diameter carrying the primary coolant.", "value": "up to 6; up to 800; 300-16,000; ~2", "unit": "loops; t; tubes; cm", "qualifier": "PWR and PHWR", "citation_name": "WNA - Nuclear Power Reactors", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-power-reactors/nuclear-power-reactors", "citation_date": "2026-08-05", "verified_on": "2026-10-10", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "Same page, 'Steam generator' entry and its footnote. The page adds that since 1980 over 110 PWRs have had their steam generators replaced after 20-30 years of service." }, { "fact_id": "rf_turbine_generator_condenser", "page": "reactor_families", "topic": "pwr", "claim": "In a PWR the steam line directs the steam to the main turbine, which turns the turbine generator that produces electricity; the unused steam is exhausted to the condenser, condensed into water, pumped out of the condenser by a series of pumps, reheated and pumped back to the steam generator.", "value": "", "unit": "", "qualifier": "US NRC description of a PWR", "citation_name": "US NRC - Pressurized Water Reactors", "citation_url": "https://www.nrc.gov/reactors/power/pwrs.html", "citation_date": "2026-09-14", "verified_on": "2026-10-10", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "", "notes": "NRC 'Pressurized Water Reactors' page, last reviewed 14 September 2026, read 2026-10-10 via scripts/fetch (branch raw-fetch-pwr-parts). The page adds that the reactor coolant pumps and other operating systems are powered from the grid." }, { "fact_id": "rf_condenser_cooling", "page": "reactor_families", "topic": "pwr", "claim": "The condenser's surplus heat is discharged either by once-through cooling, running a large amount of sea, lake or river water through the condensers once and returning it a few degrees warmer, or by recirculating cooling through a cooling tower, where an updraught of air through water droplets cools the water chiefly by evaporation (natural draught by the chimney effect, or mechanical draught with fans that take about 1% of the plant's output); the tower evaporates up to 5% of the flow.", "value": "~1 (up to 1.2); up to 5", "unit": "% of output (mechanical-draught fans); % of flow evaporated", "qualifier": "steam-cycle plants, nuclear or fossil", "citation_name": "WNA - Cooling Power Plants", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/cooling-power-plants", "citation_date": "2026-09-08", "verified_on": "2026-10-10", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "WNA Cooling Power Plants page (updated 8 September 2026), read 2026-10-10 via scripts/fetch (branch raw-fetch-pwr-parts)." }, { "fact_id": "rf_thermal_efficiency", "page": "reactor_families", "topic": "pwr", "claim": "Any steam-cycle plant loses about two-thirds of its energy in turning heat into mechanical energy; nuclear plants now being built have about 34-36% thermal efficiency depending on the site, older ones often only 32-33%, and a plant at 33% has to dump about 14% more heat than one at 36%.", "value": "34-36; 32-33; ~14", "unit": "% thermal efficiency (new); % (older); % more heat at 33 vs 36", "qualifier": "steam-cycle plants", "citation_name": "WNA - Cooling Power Plants", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/cooling-power-plants", "citation_date": "2026-09-08", "verified_on": "2026-10-10", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "Same WNA page. The condenser circuit is where virtually all of a nuclear plant's waste heat leaves (coal plants send some 15% up the stack)." }, { "fact_id": "rf_bwr", "page": "reactor_families", "topic": "bwr", "claim": "The boiling water reactor (BWR) has a single circuit in which water at about 75 atmospheres boils in the core (about 285 C) and the steam passes directly to the turbine.", "value": "60 (WNA) / 45 (PRIS); ~75; ~285", "unit": "reactors; atm; C", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "WNA - Nuclear Power Reactors", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-power-reactors/nuclear-power-reactors", "citation_date": "2026-08-05", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "Most of the WNA-PRIS gap is Japan's suspended BWRs." }, { "fact_id": "rf_phwr_candu", "page": "reactor_families", "topic": "phwr", "claim": "Pressurised heavy water reactors (CANDU and Indian PHWRs) use natural uranium oxide fuel with heavy water as moderator in a pressure-tube design, which lets them be refuelled progressively without shutting down.", "value": "47 (WNA) / 46 (PRIS)", "unit": "reactors", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "WNA - Nuclear Power Reactors", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-power-reactors/nuclear-power-reactors", "citation_date": "2026-08-05", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "rf_vver", "page": "reactor_families", "topic": "vver", "claim": "VVER is the Russian family of water-moderated and water-cooled pressurised reactors (the VVER-1200 is the current Generation III+ model with about 1,085-1,114 MWe net).", "value": "1085-1114", "unit": "MWe net (VVER-1200 units at Leningrad II / Novovoronezh II)", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "WNA - Advanced Nuclear Power Reactors", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-power-reactors/advanced-nuclear-power-reactors", "citation_date": "2025-11-21", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "WNA describes VVERs only as 'water-moderated and -cooled'; the hexagonal fuel assemblies and horizontal steam generators often cited were not confirmed on pages read today." }, { "fact_id": "rf_agr_gcr", "page": "reactor_families", "topic": "gcr", "claim": "Britain's advanced gas-cooled reactors (AGRs) use a graphite moderator and carbon dioxide coolant with fuel enriched to 2.5-3.5%; eight remain operable.", "value": "8; 2.5-3.5", "unit": "reactors; % U-235", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "WNA - Nuclear Power Reactors", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-power-reactors/nuclear-power-reactors", "citation_date": "2026-08-05", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "rf_rbmk_lwgr", "page": "reactor_families", "topic": "lwgr", "claim": "The Soviet RBMK (light-water graphite reactor) has vertical pressure tubes running through a graphite moderator in which the water is allowed to boil; seven remain in operation.", "value": "7", "unit": "reactors", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "WNA - Nuclear Power Reactors", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-power-reactors/nuclear-power-reactors", "citation_date": "2026-08-05", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "Chernobyl unit 4 was an RBMK-1000 (see safety_generations)." }, { "fact_id": "rf_htgr", "page": "reactor_families", "topic": "htgr", "claim": "High-temperature gas-cooled reactors (HTGRs) use helium coolant, a graphite moderator and TRISO coated-particle fuel, reaching about 750-950 C; the only commercial unit is China's HTR-PM (two 250 MWt pebble-bed modules on one 210 MWe turbine, commercial operation declared 6 December 2023).", "value": "1; 750-950; 210", "unit": "reactor; C; MWe", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "WNA - Nuclear Power Reactors", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-power-reactors/nuclear-power-reactors", "citation_date": "2026-08-05", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "HTR-PM dates and ratings cross-checked with data/smr_projects.csv (htr-pm-shidaowan, WNN 2023-12-06). TRISO particle data in sc_triso_particles." }, { "fact_id": "rf_fast_reactors", "page": "reactor_families", "topic": "fnr", "claim": "Fast neutron reactors have no moderator and use a liquid-metal coolant (normally sodium) at around 500-550 C and near-atmospheric pressure; they can breed plutonium from U-238 or burn long-lived actinides, extracting about 60 times more energy from uranium than a conventional reactor.", "value": "500-550; ~60", "unit": "C; x uranium efficiency", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "WNA - Fast Neutron Reactors", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/fast-neutron-reactors", "citation_date": "2026-03-31", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "rf_fast_reactor_fleet", "page": "reactor_families", "topic": "fnr", "claim": "About 20 fast reactors have operated, accumulating over 400 reactor-years; the two operating commercial units are Russia's BN-600 (since 1980) and BN-800 (since 2014, full MOX core from September 2022) at Beloyarsk, while China's CEFR went critical in July 2010 and India's PFBR began core loading in March 2024.", "value": "~20; >400; 2", "unit": "reactors (historical); reactor-years; operable (WNA/PRIS)", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "WNA - Fast Neutron Reactors", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/fast-neutron-reactors", "citation_date": "2026-03-31", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "BN-800 primary outlet temperature 547 C." }, { "fact_id": "rf_msr", "page": "reactor_families", "topic": "msr", "claim": "Molten salt reactors use molten fluoride (or chloride) salts as coolant and usually as the fuel carrier, at low pressure and about 700 C; freeze plugs can drain the salt into dump tanks on overheating.", "value": "~700", "unit": "C", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "WNA - Molten Salt Reactors", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/molten-salt-reactors", "citation_date": "2025-11-21", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "rf_msr_history", "page": "reactor_families", "topic": "msr", "claim": "The only MSR to have operated is the 8 MWt Molten Salt Reactor Experiment at Oak Ridge (1965-69, with a U-233 campaign in 1968-69); China's 2 MWt TMSR-LF1 at Wuwei, Gansu, was listed by WNA as under construction on its page of November 2025.", "value": "8; 2", "unit": "MWt", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "WNA - Molten Salt Reactors", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/molten-salt-reactors", "citation_date": "2025-11-21", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "The brief's 'TMSR-LF1 criticality 2023 and thorium fuel 2024/2025' was not confirmed on the WNA page read today." }, { "fact_id": "rf_online_refuelling", "page": "reactor_families", "topic": "fleet", "claim": "CANDU, RBMK and AGR reactors can be refuelled under load; light-water reactors must shut down to refuel.", "value": "", "unit": "", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "WNA - Nuclear Power Reactors", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-power-reactors/nuclear-power-reactors", "citation_date": "2026-08-05", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "sg_generations_wna", "page": "safety_generations", "topic": "generations", "claim": "Generation I reactors were the prototypes of the 1950s-60s (the last, Wylfa 1 in the UK, closed at the end of 2015); Generation II is typified by the present US fleet and most reactors operating elsewhere; Generation III are the advanced designs evolved from them; Generation IV designs are still on the drawing board.", "value": "", "unit": "", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "WNA - Nuclear Power Reactors", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-power-reactors/nuclear-power-reactors", "citation_date": "2026-08-05", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "WNA says there is no clear distinction between Generation II and III." }, { "fact_id": "sg_gen3_features", "page": "safety_generations", "topic": "generations", "claim": "Generation III/III+ designs feature a standardised design to speed licensing and construction, a typical 60-year operating life, passive or inherent safety features, further reduced core-melt probability (about ten times better than current US plants) and a grace period in which the plant needs no active intervention for typically 72 hours after shutdown.", "value": "60; 72; ~10x", "unit": "years; hours; CDF improvement", "qualifier": "WNA list of Gen III characteristics", "citation_name": "WNA - Advanced Nuclear Power Reactors", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-power-reactors/advanced-nuclear-power-reactors", "citation_date": "2025-11-21", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "sg_gen4_gif", "page": "safety_generations", "topic": "generations", "claim": "The Generation IV International Forum set eight technology goals in four areas - sustainability, economics, safety and reliability, and proliferation resistance and physical protection - and selected six systems: GFR (helium, 850 C), LFR (lead, 480-570 C), MSR (fluoride or chloride salts, 700-800 C), SCWR (water, 510-625 C), SFR (sodium, 500-550 C) and VHTR (helium, 900-1000 C).", "value": "6; 8; 4", "unit": "systems; goals; goal areas", "qualifier": "GIF technology roadmap", "citation_name": "Generation IV International Forum - Generation IV criteria and technologies", "citation_url": "https://www.gen-4.org/generation-iv-criteria-and-technologies", "citation_date": "2026-10-09", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "", "notes": "GIF work began in 2001 with over 100 experts from ten countries plus IAEA and OECD NEA." }, { "fact_id": "sg_defence_in_depth_nrc", "page": "safety_generations", "topic": "defence_in_depth", "claim": "Defence in depth is an approach to designing and operating nuclear facilities that prevents and mitigates accidents through multiple independent and redundant layers of defence, so that no single layer, no matter how robust, is exclusively relied upon; it includes access controls, physical barriers, redundant and diverse key safety functions and emergency response measures.", "value": "", "unit": "", "qualifier": "NRC glossary definition", "citation_name": "US NRC Glossary - Defense in depth", "citation_url": "https://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/basic-ref/glossary/defense-in-depth.html", "citation_date": "2021-03-09", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "", "notes": "IAEA INSAG-10 (the five-level formulation) could not be fetched today - do not quote level wording without it." }, { "fact_id": "sg_barriers", "page": "safety_generations", "topic": "defence_in_depth", "claim": "Successive physical barriers hold radioactivity in: ceramic fuel pellets sealed in zirconium-alloy tubes, a steel pressure vessel with walls up to 30 cm thick, and a reinforced-concrete containment with walls at least one metre thick.", "value": "30; >=1", "unit": "cm; m", "qualifier": "typical LWR", "citation_name": "WNA - Safety of Nuclear Power Reactors", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/safety-and-security/safety-of-plants/safety-of-nuclear-power-reactors", "citation_date": "2026-05-27", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "sg_containment_purpose", "page": "safety_generations", "topic": "defence_in_depth", "claim": "The containment is the metre-thick concrete-and-steel structure around the reactor and steam generators designed to protect them from outside intrusion and to protect those outside from the effects of radiation in a malfunction.", "value": "~1", "unit": "m", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "WNA - Nuclear Power Reactors", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-power-reactors/nuclear-power-reactors", "citation_date": "2026-08-05", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "sg_core_damage_frequency", "page": "safety_generations", "topic": "risk", "claim": "The US NRC requires new reactor designs to meet a theoretical core damage frequency of 1 in 10,000 reactor-years; US utility requirements are 1 in 100,000, the best operating plants are about 1 in a million and European authorities require 1 in a million for new designs.", "value": "1e-4; 1e-5; 1e-6", "unit": "per reactor-year", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "WNA - Safety of Nuclear Power Reactors", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/safety-and-security/safety-of-plants/safety-of-nuclear-power-reactors", "citation_date": "2026-05-27", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "sg_reactor_years", "page": "safety_generations", "topic": "record", "claim": "Civil nuclear power has accumulated over 20,000 reactor-years of commercial operation in 36 countries, with three significant accidents at power plants: Three Mile Island (1979), Chernobyl (1986) and Fukushima Daiichi (2011).", "value": ">20000; 36; 3", "unit": "reactor-years; countries; accidents", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "WNA - Safety of Nuclear Power Reactors", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/safety-and-security/safety-of-plants/safety-of-nuclear-power-reactors", "citation_date": "2026-05-27", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "WNA's intro bullets say 'two major reactor accidents' (Chernobyl and Fukushima) while the body lists three 'significant' accidents including TMI; use 'three significant / two major'." }, { "fact_id": "sg_ap1000_passive", "page": "safety_generations", "topic": "passive_safety", "claim": "The AP1000 relies on natural forces - gravity, natural circulation and compressed gases - to keep the core and containment from overheating with no operator action and no on-site or off-site AC power; Westinghouse states its passive systems maintain core cooling and containment integrity indefinitely following design-basis events and that its core damage frequency is 1/100 that of currently operating plants.", "value": "1/100", "unit": "relative CDF", "qualifier": "Westinghouse design claims", "citation_name": "Westinghouse - AP1000 PWR Safety", "citation_url": "https://www.westinghousenuclear.com/energy-systems/ap1000-pwr/safety", "citation_date": "2026-10-09", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "The '72-hour' passive cooling figure in the brief appears on WNA pages only as the generic Gen III grace period (and for the CAP1400 derivative); Westinghouse's AP1000 pages read today say 'indefinitely following design-basis events' and give no 72-hour figure. Attribute 72 hours to 'Generation III designs typically', not to the AP1000 specifically.", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "sg_ap1000_certification", "page": "safety_generations", "topic": "passive_safety", "claim": "The NRC issued the AP1000 design certification rule on 27 January 2006 (71 FR 4464) and the amended certification on 30 December 2011; the design is 1,250 MWe gross and 1,110-1,117 MWe net in the USA.", "value": "2006-01-27; 2011-12-30; 1250; 1110-1117", "unit": "dates; MWe gross; MWe net", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "US NRC - AP1000 Design Certification", "citation_url": "https://www.nrc.gov/reactors/new-reactors/large-lwr/design-cert/ap1000.html", "citation_date": "2026-09-14", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "", "notes": "Output figures from the WNA Advanced Reactors page (2025-11-21); Westinghouse's page says 'over 1 GW' with six units in commercial operation." }, { "fact_id": "sg_core_catchers", "page": "safety_generations", "topic": "passive_safety", "claim": "The EPR (1,750 MWe gross / 1,630 MWe net, double containment, four redundant safety trains) and the VVER-1200 both have core catchers beneath the reactor pressure vessel to contain molten core material in a severe accident; the VVER-1200's long-term decay heat removal does not rely on electrical power.", "value": "1750; 1630", "unit": "MWe gross; MWe net (EPR)", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "WNA - Advanced Nuclear Power Reactors", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-power-reactors/advanced-nuclear-power-reactors", "citation_date": "2025-11-21", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "sg_ines_scale", "page": "safety_generations", "topic": "ines", "claim": "On the IAEA's International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale (INES, levels 0-7) Chernobyl 1986 and Fukushima Daiichi 1-3 (2011) are rated level 7 'major accident', Kyshtym/Mayak 1957 level 6, Three Mile Island 1979 and Windscale 1957 level 5, and Saint-Laurent 1969/1980 and Tokai-mura 1999 level 4.", "value": "7; 7; 6; 5; 5; 4", "unit": "INES level", "qualifier": "IAEA ratings as tabulated by WNA", "citation_name": "WNA - Safety of Nuclear Power Reactors", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/safety-and-security/safety-of-plants/safety-of-nuclear-power-reactors", "citation_date": "2026-05-27", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "IAEA's own INES pages could not be fetched today; WNA reproduces the IAEA table." }, { "fact_id": "sg_tmi_event", "page": "safety_generations", "topic": "three_mile_island", "claim": "The Three Mile Island unit 2 accident began at about 4 a.m. on 28 March 1979 when the main feedwater pumps failed, a pilot-operated relief valve stuck open while instruments showed it closed, operators cut back emergency cooling, and the core overheated and partially melted.", "value": "1979-03-28", "unit": "date", "qualifier": "TMI-2, PWR, Pennsylvania", "citation_name": "US NRC - Backgrounder on the Three Mile Island Accident", "citation_url": "https://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/fact-sheets/3mile-isle.html", "citation_date": "2026-09-10", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "", "notes": "WNA: 'at least 45% of the core - 62 tonnes - had melted'; the containment building worked as designed." }, { "fact_id": "sg_tmi_dose", "page": "safety_generations", "topic": "three_mile_island", "claim": "The roughly 2 million people around Three Mile Island received an average dose of about 1 millirem above background, with a maximum site-boundary dose below 100 millirem, compared with about 6 millirem for a chest X-ray and 100-125 millirem per year of natural background; investigations found negligible effects on health or the environment.", "value": "~1; <100; ~6; 100-125", "unit": "mrem; mrem; mrem; mrem/yr", "qualifier": "NRC backgrounder", "citation_name": "US NRC - Backgrounder on the Three Mile Island Accident", "citation_url": "https://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/fact-sheets/3mile-isle.html", "citation_date": "2026-09-10", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "WNA gives the average dose to people within 10 miles as 0.08 mSv (8 mrem) with no individual above 1 mSv - a different population and radius, not a conflict; quote one source with its definition.", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "sg_chernobyl_event", "page": "safety_generations", "topic": "chernobyl", "claim": "The Chernobyl accident destroyed the RBMK-1000 unit 4 early on 26 April 1986 during a test; it was the product of a flawed Soviet reactor design (including a positive void coefficient) coupled with serious operator mistakes, and at least 5% of the core's radioactive inventory was released.", "value": "1986-04-26; >=5", "unit": "date; % of core inventory released", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "WNA - Chernobyl Accident 1986", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/safety-and-security/safety-of-plants/chernobyl-accident", "citation_date": "2026-04-15", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "sg_chernobyl_deaths", "page": "safety_generations", "topic": "chernobyl", "claim": "Two plant workers died on the night of the Chernobyl accident and a further 28 people died within a few weeks from acute radiation poisoning; UNSCEAR later reported some 5,000 thyroid cancers resulting in 15 fatalities, and found no evidence of a major public health impact attributable to radiation 20 years on.", "value": "2; 28; ~5000; 15", "unit": "deaths; deaths; thyroid cancers; fatalities", "qualifier": "UNSCEAR as summarised by WNA", "citation_name": "WNA - Chernobyl Accident 1986", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/safety-and-security/safety-of-plants/chernobyl-accident", "citation_date": "2026-04-15", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "WNA's safety page elsewhere states '56 killed, 28 of whom died within weeks from radiation exposure'; quote the 2 + 28 figure with its definition (deaths within weeks). The exclusion zone was extended to 4,300 km2.", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "sg_fukushima_event", "page": "safety_generations", "topic": "fukushima", "claim": "On 11 March 2011 the magnitude 9.0 Great East Japan Earthquake and a tsunami about 15 m high (against a design-basis tsunami of 5.7 m set in 2002, raised to 6.1 m in 2009) disabled cooling at Fukushima Daiichi; the cores of units 1-3 largely melted within three days and the accident was rated INES level 7.", "value": "2011-03-11; 9.0; ~15; 5.7 / 6.1; 7", "unit": "date; magnitude; m; m; INES level", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "WNA - Fukushima Daiichi Accident", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/safety-and-security/safety-of-plants/fukushima-daiichi-accident", "citation_date": "2026-09-23", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "sg_fukushima_health", "page": "safety_generations", "topic": "fukushima", "claim": "There have been no deaths or cases of radiation sickness from the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear accident (in 2018 the government recognised one former worker's lung-cancer death as radiation-linked for compensation), whereas the earthquake and tsunami killed about 19,500 people and 2,313 disaster-related deaths have been identified among evacuees from Fukushima prefecture.", "value": "0; 1; ~19500; 2313", "unit": "radiation deaths; compensated case; quake/tsunami deaths; evacuation-related deaths", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "WNA - Fukushima Daiichi Accident", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/safety-and-security/safety-of-plants/fukushima-daiichi-accident", "citation_date": "2026-09-23", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "Over 100,000 people were evacuated initially (some 160,000 in total); about 27,000 remained displaced as of November 2025." }, { "fact_id": "smr_iaea_definition", "page": "smr", "topic": "definition", "claim": "The IAEA defines small modular reactors as advanced reactors that produce up to 300 MW(e) per module, deployable as single or multi-module plants and designed to be built in factories and shipped to utilities for installation as demand arises; it tracks more than 80 SMR designs and concepts globally.", "value": "300; >80", "unit": "MW(e) per module; designs", "qualifier": "IAEA topic page (no date printed)", "citation_name": "IAEA - Small modular reactors (topic page)", "citation_url": "https://www.iaea.org/topics/small-modular-reactors", "citation_date": "2026-10-09", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "smr_wna_definition", "page": "smr", "topic": "definition", "claim": "WNA uses 'small' for reactors of generally 300 MWe equivalent or less, designed with modular technology using module factory fabrication, pursuing economies of series production and short construction times.", "value": "300", "unit": "MWe", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "WNA - Small Nuclear Power Reactors", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-power-reactors/small-nuclear-power-reactors", "citation_date": "2026-10-01", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "smr_microreactor_iaea", "page": "smr", "topic": "definition", "claim": "The IAEA describes microreactors as producing up to 10 MW(e), small enough for the whole plant to be built in a factory and transported by truck, and able to operate independently of the grid for remote communities, mining sites or as backup power for hospitals.", "value": "<=10", "unit": "MW(e)", "qualifier": "IAEA Bulletin", "citation_name": "IAEA Bulletin - Small reactors, great potential (Irena Chatzis)", "citation_url": "https://www.iaea.org/bulletin/small-reactors-great-potential", "citation_date": "2026-10-09", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "US DOE describes microreactors as producing 1-20 megawatts of thermal energy (MWt), transportable by truck, ship, airplane or railcar, and running up to 10 years without refuelling. The brief's '<~10-20 MWe' mixes the two definitions; cite electric (IAEA) or thermal (DOE) explicitly.", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "smr_microreactor_doe", "page": "smr", "topic": "definition", "claim": "DOE: most microreactors would produce 1-20 megawatts of thermal energy, be fully assembled in a factory and shipped to site, and operate for up to 10 years without refuelling.", "value": "1-20; 10", "unit": "MWt; years", "qualifier": "DOE Office of Nuclear Energy", "citation_name": "US DOE Office of Nuclear Energy - What is a Nuclear Microreactor?", "citation_url": "https://www.energy.gov/ne/articles/what-nuclear-microreactor", "citation_date": "2021-02-26", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "smr_rationale", "page": "smr", "topic": "rationale", "claim": "The case for SMRs rests on factory fabrication of modules under controlled conditions, series production, a significantly lower capital outlay per unit (lower financial risk), deployment on grids too small for large reactors or at industrial sites and potentially nearer urban areas, and passive safety features that may allow smaller emergency planning zones.", "value": "", "unit": "", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "WNA - Small Nuclear Power Reactors", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-power-reactors/small-nuclear-power-reactors", "citation_date": "2026-10-01", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "smr_lomonosov", "page": "smr", "topic": "floating", "claim": "Russia's Akademik Lomonosov at Pevek, Chukotka - the only operating floating nuclear power plant - has two 35 MWe (32 MWe net) KLT-40S reactors on a 21,500-tonne, 144 m long hull; both units were connected to the grid on 19 December 2019 and entered commercial operation in May 2020.", "value": "2 x 35 (32 net); 2019-12-19; 2020-05", "unit": "MWe; grid date; commercial operation", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "WNA - Nuclear Power in Russia (country profile)", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-o-s/russia-nuclear-power", "citation_date": "2026-07-22", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "KLT-40S fuel is LEU below 20% U-235; the two-reactor plant supplies 70 MWe plus 586 GJ/h of heat and is also used for seawater desalination (IAEA Bulletin). Matches data/smr_projects.csv (akademik-lomonosov-pevek). The exact commercial-operation day (22 May 2020) was not printed on pages read today." }, { "fact_id": "smr_use_cases", "page": "smr", "topic": "use_cases", "claim": "Use cases cited by the IAEA include power for hard-to-reach places and small grids, remote communities and mining sites, backup supply for hospitals and seawater desalination (as at Akademik Lomonosov); SMR vendors also target industrial heat and data centres.", "value": "", "unit": "", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "IAEA Bulletin - Small reactors, great potential (Irena Chatzis)", "citation_url": "https://www.iaea.org/bulletin/small-reactors-great-potential", "citation_date": "2026-10-09", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "Data-centre offtake examples: Kairos Hermes 2 for Google via TVA (kairos_h2); Natrium for PacifiCorp." }, { "fact_id": "sd_nuscale_us460", "page": "smr_designs", "topic": "nuscale", "claim": "NuScale's US460 design has 77 MWe per nuclear power module and six modules per plant (462 MWe); the NRC issued its standard design approval in May 2025 on an application dated 31 December 2022, building on the 50 MWe design certified in 2023.", "value": "77; 6; 462; 2025-05", "unit": "MWe/module; modules; MWe; SDA date", "qualifier": "NRC applicant page updated 2026-09-16", "citation_name": "US NRC - NuScale US460 (applicant project page)", "citation_url": "https://www.nrc.gov/reactors/new-reactors/advanced/who-were-working-with/applicant-projects/nuscale-us460.html", "citation_date": "2026-09-16", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "", "notes": "DOE article dated 30 May 2025 announces the approval. data/smr_projects.csv agrees (77 MWe, SDA announced 2025-05-29/30). NuScale has 12 modules in production with Doosan (DOE)." }, { "fact_id": "sd_nuscale_ropower", "page": "smr_designs", "topic": "nuscale", "claim": "RoPower's six-module NuScale plant at the former Doicesti coal site in Romania (462 MWe) took its final investment decision in February 2026; the cost was put at USD 6-7 billion, first module commercial operation is targeted for 2033, and US DFC and EXIM issued letters of interest for up to USD 1 billion and USD 3 billion.", "value": "462; 2033; 6-7", "unit": "MWe; year; USD billion", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "WNN - Final investment decision taken for Romania's SMRs", "citation_url": "https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/articles/final-investment-decision-taken-for-romanias-smrs", "citation_date": "2026-02-13", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "Matches smr_projects.csv (ropower-doicesti)." }, { "fact_id": "sd_nuscale_module_configuration", "page": "smr_designs", "topic": "nuscale", "claim": "The certified NuScale power module is a natural circulation light water reactor whose reactor core, pressuriser and two helical-coil steam generators sit in one common reactor pressure vessel housed in a compact cylindrical steel containment; each module is rated 160 MWt and 50 MWe, a reactor building holds up to 12 modules (600 MWe), and all the modules are partially submerged in a common safety-related pool, the ultimate heat sink, in the below-grade part of the reactor building.", "value": "160; 50; 12; 600", "unit": "MWt; MWe; modules; MWe", "qualifier": "certified design (final rule effective 21 February 2023); the US460 is the uprate of this module to 77 MWe (DOE)", "citation_name": "Federal Register - NuScale Small Modular Reactor Design Certification, final rule (88 FR 3287)", "citation_url": "https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2023/01/19/2023-00729/nuscale-small-modular-reactor-design-certification", "citation_date": "2023-01-19", "verified_on": "2026-10-10", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "", "notes": "Federal Register final rule 88 FR 3287 (19 January 2023), 'Background' section, read 2026-10-10 via scripts/fetch (branch raw-fetch-nuscale2). DOE (20 January 2023) states NuScale was seeking an uprate to 77 MWe per module; the NRC US460 applicant page (sd_nuscale_us460) gives 77 MWe and six modules (462 MWe) for the approved US460." }, { "fact_id": "sd_nuscale_steam_generator", "page": "smr_designs", "topic": "nuscale", "claim": "NuScale's helical-coil steam generators differ from those of operating pressurised water reactors in that the primary reactor coolant is on the outside of the steam generator tubes and the steam is on the inside.", "value": "", "unit": "", "qualifier": "certified design", "citation_name": "Federal Register - NuScale Small Modular Reactor Design Certification, final rule (88 FR 3287)", "citation_url": "https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2023/01/19/2023-00729/nuscale-small-modular-reactor-design-certification", "citation_date": "2023-01-19", "verified_on": "2026-10-10", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "", "notes": "Federal Register 88 FR 3287, comprehensive vibration assessment programme discussion." }, { "fact_id": "sd_nuscale_passive_cooling", "page": "smr_designs", "topic": "nuscale", "claim": "The certified NuScale design needs no Class 1E safety-related power (no emergency diesel generators) and no pumps to inject water into the core after an accident; its emergency core cooling relies on natural circulation, venting steam from the top of the reactor pressure vessel through three reactor vent valves into the containment vessel and returning the condensed water through two reactor recirculation valves.", "value": "3; 2", "unit": "reactor vent valves; reactor recirculation valves", "qualifier": "certified design", "citation_name": "Federal Register - NuScale Small Modular Reactor Design Certification, final rule (88 FR 3287)", "citation_url": "https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2023/01/19/2023-00729/nuscale-small-modular-reactor-design-certification", "citation_date": "2023-01-19", "verified_on": "2026-10-10", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "", "notes": "Federal Register 88 FR 3287, 'Background' and emergency core cooling system discussion. The NRC's own description of the design, not a vendor claim." }, { "fact_id": "sd_bwrx300_darlington", "page": "smr_designs", "topic": "bwrx300", "claim": "For the 300 MWe GE Vernova Hitachi BWRX-300, the Canadian regulator granted OPG a licence to construct the first unit at Darlington in April 2025, nuclear construction is under way, and OPG's licence-to-operate application (March 2026) is under CNSC review.", "value": "300; 2025-04; 2026-03", "unit": "MWe; licence to construct; LTO application", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "GE Vernova press release - NRC issues first US construction permit for BWRX-300 SMR (TVA Clinch River)", "citation_url": "https://www.gevernova.com/news/press-releases/nrc-issues-first-us-construction-permit-bwrx-300-small-modular-reactor-tva-clinch-river", "citation_date": "2026-09-29", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "Matches smr_projects.csv (bwrx300-darlington-unit1, target 2030). CNSC page could not be fetched today." }, { "fact_id": "sd_bwrx300_clinch_river", "page": "smr_designs", "topic": "bwrx300", "claim": "On 29 September 2026 the NRC issued TVA a construction permit for a BWRX-300 at the Clinch River site, Tennessee - the first US construction permit for the design - on an application submitted in April 2025; Blue Energy filed part one of a construction permit application for a BWRX-300 in Texas in September 2026.", "value": "2026-09-29", "unit": "date", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "GE Vernova press release - NRC issues first US construction permit for BWRX-300 SMR (TVA Clinch River)", "citation_url": "https://www.gevernova.com/news/press-releases/nrc-issues-first-us-construction-permit-bwrx-300-small-modular-reactor-tva-clinch-river", "citation_date": "2026-09-29", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "data/smr_projects.csv says the Clinch River CPA was submitted in May 2025 (NRC docketing); GE Vernova says TVA submitted it in April 2025 - submission vs docketing date.", "notes": "TVA has announced no construction start date (smr_projects.csv note). The brief's 'TVA Clinch River CP Sept 2026' is confirmed." }, { "fact_id": "sd_rolls_royce_smr", "page": "smr_designs", "topic": "rolls_royce", "claim": "The Rolls-Royce SMR is a 470 MWe (1,358 MWt) factory-built plant; it entered the UK Generic Design Assessment in March 2022 and reached Step 3 (the final step) in July 2024, was named preferred bidder by Great British Energy - Nuclear on 10 June 2025 within a programme funded with over GBP 2.5 billion for grid connection in the mid-2030s, and Wylfa (Anglesey) was selected on 13 November 2025 as the site for three units.", "value": "470; 1358; 2025-06-10; 2025-11-13; 3", "unit": "MWe; MWt; selection; siting; units", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "GOV.UK press release - Rolls-Royce SMR selected to build small modular nuclear reactors", "citation_url": "https://www.gov.uk/government/news/rolls-royce-smr-selected-to-build-small-modular-nuclear-reactors", "citation_date": "2025-06-10", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "", "notes": "Capacity from rolls-royce-smr.com; GDA Step 3 status from ONR (2025-11-13); Rolls-Royce SMR was also shortlisted by Vattenfall in Sweden in June 2024 (company site). smr_projects.csv agrees (rr-smr-wylfa-gben) and notes GDA completion unconfirmed." }, { "fact_id": "sd_linglong_one", "page": "smr_designs", "topic": "acp100", "claim": "China's 125 MW ACP100 'Linglong One' at Changjiang, Hainan, under construction since July 2021, completed cold functional testing in October 2025 and was reported (unconfirmed local media, 7 October 2026) to be in hot functional testing, with fuel loading and grid connection targeted before the end of 2026; it could be the world's first onshore commercial SMR to operate.", "value": "125; 2021-07; 2025-10; 2026", "unit": "MW; construction start; cold tests; target", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "NucNet - Hot testing begins at China's Linglong-1 small modular reactor", "citation_url": "https://www.nucnet.org/news/hot-testing-begins-at-china-s-linglong-1-small-modular-reactor-10-3-2026", "citation_date": "2026-10-07", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "A CNNC official had said in December 2025 that commercial operation was expected in H1 2026. Matches smr_projects.csv (linglong-one-changjiang)." }, { "fact_id": "sd_xe100", "page": "smr_designs", "topic": "x_energy", "claim": "X-energy's Xe-100 is an 80 MWe high-temperature gas reactor using TRISO fuel; four units are planned at Dow's Seadrift site (Long Mott Generating Station, Texas), where the NRC docketed the construction permit application in May 2025, issued an environmental assessment in May 2026 and held the mandatory hearing on 22 September 2026, with the permit decision pending.", "value": "80; 4; 2025-05; 2026-09-22", "unit": "MWe; units; CPA docketed; hearing", "qualifier": "status per data/smr_projects.csv (sources NRC hearing notice, WNN 2026-05-19, verified 2026-10-09)", "citation_name": "US NRC - mandatory hearing notice, Long Mott Generating Station (via data/smr_projects.csv)", "citation_url": "https://www.nrc.gov/public-involve/public-meetings/pmns/20260726", "citation_date": "2026-09-22", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "Not re-fetched in this task; the Energy Northwest Cascade project (Washington) is in NRC pre-application since August 2024. Amazon's investment role was not verified today." }, { "fact_id": "sd_natrium", "page": "smr_designs", "topic": "terrapower", "claim": "TerraPower's Natrium plant (Kemmerer Unit 1, Wyoming) pairs a 345 MW sodium-cooled fast reactor with molten-salt energy storage that can raise output to 500 MW; on 4 March 2026 the NRC Commissioners voted to issue its construction permit - the first for a commercial-scale advanced reactor - 18 months after the March 2024 application.", "value": "345; 500; 2026-03-04", "unit": "MW; MW peak; CP vote", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "TerraPower - NRC Approves Natrium Reactor Construction Permit", "citation_url": "https://www.terrapower.com/NRC-Approves-Natrium-Reactor-Construction-Permit", "citation_date": "2026-03-04", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "", "notes": "Matches smr_projects.csv (natrium-kemmerer-unit1: HALEU metallic fuel, commercial operation targeted 2031; Bechtel exited as EPC Sept 2026)." }, { "fact_id": "sd_kairos_hermes", "page": "smr_designs", "topic": "kairos", "claim": "Kairos Power's fluoride-salt-cooled Hermes 1 low-power demonstration reactor is under nuclear construction at Oak Ridge, Tennessee (currently the only Gen IV reactor under active nuclear construction in the US), and the company broke ground on 17 April 2026 for Hermes 2, its first power-producing plant, which will supply up to 50 MW to the TVA grid for Google data centres.", "value": "50; 2026-04-17", "unit": "MW; groundbreaking", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "Kairos Power - Kairos Power breaks ground on Hermes 2 demonstration plant", "citation_url": "https://www.kairospower.com/updates/kairos-power-breaks-ground-on-hermes-2-demonstration-plant", "citation_date": "2026-04-17", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "", "notes": "smr_projects.csv adds: Hermes 1 is a 35 MWt non-power test reactor with NRC construction permit Dec 2023 (construction began 2025-05-01, completion deadline extended to 2029-04-30); Hermes 2 construction permit Nov 2024 - those dates are from WNN as read in task 2, not on the Kairos page." }, { "fact_id": "sd_oklo_aurora", "page": "smr_designs", "topic": "oklo", "claim": "Oklo's Aurora-INL is a 75 MWe liquid-metal-cooled, metal-fuelled fast reactor at Idaho National Laboratory; Oklo broke ground in September 2025 and secured DOE approval of its preliminary documented safety analysis on 11 June 2026 under the Reactor Pilot Program, with no criticality timeline given.", "value": "75; 2025-09; 2026-06-11", "unit": "MWe; groundbreaking; PDSA", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "ANS Nuclear Newswire - The deadline arrives: checking in on the Reactor Pilot Program", "citation_url": "https://www.ans.org/news/article-8178/the-deadline-arrives-checking-in-on-the-reactor-pilot-program/", "citation_date": "2026-07-02", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "Matches smr_projects.csv (oklo-aurora-inl). NRC pre-application docket 99902095; no COLA docketed." }, { "fact_id": "sd_reactor_pilot_program", "page": "smr_designs", "topic": "us_policy", "claim": "Executive Order 14301 set a goal of three reactors achieving criticality by 4 July 2026 under DOE's Reactor Pilot Program; by 2 July 2026 three companies - Antares Nuclear, Valar Atomics and Deployable Energy - had achieved DOE-authorised (zero-power) criticality.", "value": "3; 2026-07-04", "unit": "reactors; deadline", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "ANS Nuclear Newswire - The deadline arrives: checking in on the Reactor Pilot Program", "citation_url": "https://www.ans.org/news/article-8178/the-deadline-arrives-checking-in-on-the-reactor-pilot-program/", "citation_date": "2026-07-02", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "smr_projects.csv records a fourth (Aalo-X) on 4 July 2026 and Last Energy's PWR-5 criticality test targeted for summer 2026 pending DOE authorisation." }, { "fact_id": "sd_holtec_smr300", "page": "smr_designs", "topic": "holtec", "claim": "Holtec plans two SMR-300 pressurised-water SMRs at its Palisades site in Michigan; the NRC accepted the first part of the construction permit application for review in February 2026, with the final safety evaluation and environmental impact statement expected in March 2027.", "value": "2; 2026-02; 2027-03", "unit": "units; acceptance; SER/EIS due", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "NucNet - US nuclear regulator accepts partial construction permit application for Palisades SMRs", "citation_url": "https://www.nucnet.org/news/us-nuclear-regulator-accepts-partial-construction-permit-application-for-palisades-smrs-2-3-2026", "citation_date": "2026-02-25", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "The 300 MWe rating is from smr_projects.csv (NucNet article does not print it)." }, { "fact_id": "sd_westinghouse_ap300", "page": "smr_designs", "topic": "westinghouse", "claim": "Westinghouse's AP300 SMR is rated 330 MWe (990 MWt), is based on the licensed AP1000 technology, is designed to reach and maintain safe shutdown without operator action, back-up power or pumps, has a four-year refuelling cycle and targets an 80-year life; it is in NRC pre-application engagement with no design approval application filed.", "value": "330; 990; 4; 80", "unit": "MWe; MWt; years refuelling; years life", "qualifier": "Westinghouse product page (brochure dated April 2023)", "citation_name": "Westinghouse - AP300 SMR", "citation_url": "https://www.westinghousenuclear.com/energy-systems/ap300-smr", "citation_date": "2026-10-09", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "The project brief and data/smr_projects.csv list the AP300 at 300 MWe; Westinghouse's own page says 330 MWe (990 MWth). Use 330 MWe and flag the dataset for correction.", "notes": "NRC pre-application docket 99902111 (smr_projects.csv, NRC page updated 2026-09-08)." }, { "fact_id": "sd_newcleo", "page": "smr_designs", "topic": "newcleo", "claim": "newcleo submitted the safety options dossier for its lead-cooled fast reactor to France's ASNR (reported 15 January 2026), plans construction-authorisation applications before the end of 2027, a final investment decision around 2029 and first operation in France as early as 2032, with a MOX fuel pilot line planned at Nogent-sur-Seine and a non-nuclear precursor prototype due in 2026 at ENEA Brasimone, Italy.", "value": "2027; 2029; 2032", "unit": "applications; FID; operation", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "WNN - Licensing of newcleo's SMR progresses in France", "citation_url": "https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/articles/licensing-of-newcleos-smr-progresses-in-France", "citation_date": "2026-01-15", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "The 30 MWe (LFR-AS-30) / 200 MWe (LFR-AS-200) ratings are developer figures recorded in smr_projects.csv, not printed in the WNN article." }, { "fact_id": "sd_last_energy", "page": "smr_designs", "topic": "last_energy", "claim": "Last Energy's PWR-5 pilot reactor at the Texas A&M-RELLIS campus received DOE approval of its preliminary documented safety analysis in late May 2026 and planned an initial criticality test in summer 2026 pending DOE authorisation; the company's commercial product is the 20 MWe PWR-20, proposed for sites including the former Llynfi power station in Wales.", "value": "5; 20", "unit": "MWe (pilot, inferred from name); MWe (PWR-20)", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "ANS Nuclear Newswire - The deadline arrives: checking in on the Reactor Pilot Program", "citation_url": "https://www.ans.org/news/article-8178/the-deadline-arrives-checking-in-on-the-reactor-pilot-program/", "citation_date": "2026-07-02", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "Criticality not confirmed as of 2026-10-09 (smr_projects.csv). UK Llynfi status is low-confidence in smr_projects.csv ('key regulatory review' July 2025)." }, { "fact_id": "sd_htr_pm", "page": "smr_designs", "topic": "htgr", "claim": "China's HTR-PM at Shidao Bay, Shandong - two 250 MWt pebble-bed HTGR modules feeding one 210 MWe turbine, with TRISO fuel enriched to 8.5% - was declared in commercial operation on 6 December 2023 and is the world's only operating commercial HTGR.", "value": "2 x 250; 210; 8.5; 2023-12-06", "unit": "MWt; MWe; % U-235; date", "qualifier": "per data/smr_projects.csv (WNN 2023-12-06, verified 2026-10-09)", "citation_name": "WNN - Chinese HTR-PM Demo begins commercial operation (via data/smr_projects.csv)", "citation_url": "https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/Chinese-HTR-PM-Demo-begins-commercial-operation", "citation_date": "2023-12-06", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "Fleet count cross-checked with WNA (1 HTGR, 0.2 GWe) and PRIS (1 HTGR, 150 MWe net)." }, { "fact_id": "wa_spent_fuel_composition", "page": "waste", "topic": "composition", "claim": "Used LWR fuel is about 95.6% uranium, 2.9% stable fission products, 0.9% plutonium, 0.3% caesium and strontium, 0.1% iodine and technetium, 0.1% other long-lived fission products and 0.1% minor actinides.", "value": "95.6; 2.9; 0.9; 0.3; 0.1; 0.1; 0.1", "unit": "% by mass", "qualifier": "typical LWR fuel at discharge", "citation_name": "WNA - Processing of Used Nuclear Fuel", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/fuel-recycling/processing-of-used-nuclear-fuel", "citation_date": "2024-08-23", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "Matches the brief's ~95-96% U / ~1% Pu / ~3-4% fission products and minor actinides." }, { "fact_id": "wa_1000mwe_annual_spent_fuel", "page": "waste", "topic": "volumes", "claim": "A 1,000 MWe reactor discharges about 27.6 t of used fuel a year (containing about 280 kg of transuranics, mainly plutonium) when fuelled at 4.5% enrichment, or about 19.1 t at 5%.", "value": "27.6 (4.5%); 19.1 (5%); 280", "unit": "t/yr; t/yr; kg transuranics", "qualifier": "WNA material balance, typical 1,000 MWe LWR", "citation_name": "WNA - Nuclear Fuel Cycle Overview", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/introduction/nuclear-fuel-cycle-overview", "citation_date": "2025-09-23", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "Consistent with the brief's '~25-30 t spent fuel per year'." }, { "fact_id": "wa_world_inventory", "page": "waste", "topic": "volumes", "claim": "About 430,000 t of spent fuel has been discharged worldwide, around 30% of it reprocessed, and about 263,000 t is in storage (IAEA figures as quoted by WNA).", "value": "430000; ~30; 263000", "unit": "t; %; t", "qualifier": "cumulative, WNA page updated 2025-11-22", "citation_name": "WNA - Radioactive Waste Management", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-wastes/radioactive-waste-management", "citation_date": "2025-11-22", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "WNA's reprocessing page (2024-08-23) says about 400,000 t discharged; the IAEA figure quoted on the newer page is 430,000 t.", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "wa_hlw_share", "page": "waste", "topic": "volumes", "claim": "High-level waste accounts for just 3% of the volume but 95% of the total radioactivity of all radioactive waste produced.", "value": "3; 95", "unit": "% volume; % radioactivity", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "WNA - Radioactive Waste Management", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-wastes/radioactive-waste-management", "citation_date": "2025-11-22", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "wa_us_inventory_doe", "page": "waste", "topic": "volumes", "claim": "US commercial reactors have generated about 90,000 metric tons of spent fuel since the 1950s - enough, if stacked together, to fit on a single football field at a depth of less than 10 yards - and add about 2,000 metric tons a year; it is stored at more than 70 sites in 35 states.", "value": "~90000; <10; ~2000; >70; 35", "unit": "t; yards deep; t/yr; sites; states", "qualifier": "DOE Office of Nuclear Energy, 2022-10-03", "citation_name": "US DOE Office of Nuclear Energy - 5 Fast Facts about Spent Nuclear Fuel", "citation_url": "https://www.energy.gov/ne/articles/5-fast-facts-about-spent-nuclear-fuel", "citation_date": "2022-10-03", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "", "notes": "Confirms the brief's football-field claim (DOE gives yards, not metres; 10 yards is about 9 m). More than 90% of the fuel's potential energy remains after use." }, { "fact_id": "wa_decay_40_50_years", "page": "waste", "topic": "decay", "claim": "After 40-50 years of storage the heat and radioactivity of high-level waste have fallen by over 99%, which is the technical reason for delaying final disposal for several decades.", "value": ">99; 40-50", "unit": "% reduction; years", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "WNA - Radioactive Waste Management", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-wastes/radioactive-waste-management", "citation_date": "2025-11-22", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "wa_ore_level_time", "page": "waste", "topic": "decay", "claim": "Reprocessing used fuel and removing the plutonium and uranium leaves high-level waste that decays to the radioactivity level of the original uranium ore within about 9,000 years, compared with about 300,000 years for unreprocessed used fuel.", "value": "~9000; ~300000", "unit": "years", "qualifier": "WNA statement (not attributed to NEA on the page)", "citation_name": "WNA - Radioactive Waste Management", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-wastes/radioactive-waste-management", "citation_date": "2025-11-22", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "The brief wanted an NEA source for radiotoxicity-over-time; none was read today, so cite WNA." }, { "fact_id": "wa_pool_then_dry", "page": "waste", "topic": "storage", "claim": "Used fuel is first cooled in water pools for at least five years and then can be moved to dry casks holding about 40 assemblies each with up to about 45 kW of decay heat.", "value": ">=5; ~40; <=45", "unit": "years; assemblies; kW", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "WNA - Radioactive Waste Management", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-wastes/radioactive-waste-management", "citation_date": "2025-11-22", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "Same facts as sc_spent_fuel_pool_years / sc_dry_cask_contents." }, { "fact_id": "wa_half_life_cs137", "page": "waste", "topic": "half_lives", "claim": "Caesium-137 has a half-life of 30.08 years.", "value": "30.08", "unit": "years", "qualifier": "ENSDF adopted value (uncertainty 0.09)", "citation_name": "NNDC NuDat 3 / ENSDF adopted levels - 137Cs", "citation_url": "https://www.nndc.bnl.gov/nudat3/getdataset.jsp?nucleus=137CS&unc=nds", "citation_date": "2007-01-01", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "", "notes": "Brief value 30.1 y is this rounded." }, { "fact_id": "wa_half_life_sr90", "page": "waste", "topic": "half_lives", "claim": "Strontium-90 has a half-life of 28.91 years.", "value": "28.91", "unit": "years", "qualifier": "ENSDF adopted value (uncertainty 0.03), evaluation 2020", "citation_name": "NNDC NuDat 3 / ENSDF adopted levels - 90Sr", "citation_url": "https://www.nndc.bnl.gov/nudat3/getdataset.jsp?nucleus=90SR&unc=nds", "citation_date": "2020-03-01", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "The brief's 28.8 y is an older value; use 28.9 y (ENSDF 28.91).", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "wa_half_life_pu239", "page": "waste", "topic": "half_lives", "claim": "Plutonium-239 has a half-life of 24,110 years.", "value": "24110", "unit": "years", "qualifier": "ENSDF adopted value (uncertainty 30)", "citation_name": "NNDC NuDat 3 / ENSDF adopted levels - 239Pu", "citation_url": "https://www.nndc.bnl.gov/nudat3/getdataset.jsp?nucleus=239PU&unc=nds", "citation_date": "2014-01-01", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "", "notes": "Brief value 24,100 y is this rounded." }, { "fact_id": "wa_half_life_i131", "page": "waste", "topic": "half_lives", "claim": "Iodine-131 has a half-life of 8.0252 days.", "value": "8.0252", "unit": "days", "qualifier": "ENSDF adopted value (uncertainty 0.0006)", "citation_name": "NNDC NuDat 3 / ENSDF adopted levels - 131I", "citation_url": "https://www.nndc.bnl.gov/nudat3/getdataset.jsp?nucleus=131I&unc=nds", "citation_date": "2006-07-17", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "wa_half_life_u235", "page": "waste", "topic": "half_lives", "claim": "Uranium-235 has a half-life of 7.04 x 10^8 years (704 million years).", "value": "7.04e8", "unit": "years", "qualifier": "ENSDF adopted value", "citation_name": "NNDC NuDat 3 / ENSDF adopted levels - 235U", "citation_url": "https://www.nndc.bnl.gov/nudat3/getdataset.jsp?nucleus=235U&unc=nds", "citation_date": "2014-02-01", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "wa_half_life_u238", "page": "waste", "topic": "half_lives", "claim": "Uranium-238 has a half-life of 4.468 x 10^9 years (about 4.47 billion years, roughly the age of the Earth).", "value": "4.468e9", "unit": "years", "qualifier": "ENSDF adopted value (uncertainty 0.006e9)", "citation_name": "NNDC NuDat 3 / ENSDF adopted levels - 238U", "citation_url": "https://www.nndc.bnl.gov/nudat3/getdataset.jsp?nucleus=238U&unc=nds", "citation_date": "2014-06-01", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "wa_onkalo_status", "page": "waste", "topic": "repositories", "claim": "Finland's Onkalo repository at Olkiluoto will be the world's first industrial-scale final disposal facility for spent fuel: on 10 August 2026 regulator STUK concluded there is no obstacle to granting Posiva an operating licence, a government decision proposal was expected in autumn 2026, Posiva's goal is operational readiness for the start of disposal by the end of 2026, and it seeks a licence through 2070.", "value": "2026-08-10; end-2026; 2070", "unit": "STUK assessment; readiness target; licence term", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "ANS Nuclear Newswire - Onkalo SNF repository passes safety assessment", "citation_url": "https://www.ans.org/news/article-8280/onkalo-snf-repository-passes-safety-assessment/", "citation_date": "2026-08-10", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "Construction licence November 2015, operating licence application December 2021, depth about 400-430 m, copper canisters (WNA storage page 2026-03-26; NEI 2026-08-06 per first-run notes). No disposal had started as of 2026-10-09 in sources read." }, { "fact_id": "wa_forsmark_status", "page": "waste", "topic": "repositories", "claim": "Sweden's Government approved SKB's spent fuel repository at Forsmark and encapsulation plant at Oskarshamn on 27 January 2022; the Land and Environment Court granted permission in October 2024, ground was broken on 15 January 2025, and construction will take about ten years before disposal of some 12,000 t of fuel in about 6,000 copper canisters at about 500 m depth can begin in the 2030s.", "value": "2022-01-27; 2025-01-15; ~500; ~12000; ~6000", "unit": "approval; groundbreaking; m; t; canisters", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "SKB - The Government approves SKB's final repository system", "citation_url": "https://skb.com/news/the-government-approves-skbs-final-repository-system", "citation_date": "2022-01-27", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "", "notes": "Groundbreaking and court dates from WNN 2025-01-15; capacity and 2030s start from SKB's project page (over 60 km of tunnels when fully extended in the 2080s). Corrects the first-run note '(Sept 2022?)'." }, { "fact_id": "wa_cigeo_status", "page": "waste", "topic": "repositories", "claim": "France's Cigeo deep repository near Bure (Meuse/Haute-Marne clay, about 500 m deep) is to hold about 83,000 m3 of waste (about 10,000 m3 high-level and 73,000 m3 long-lived intermediate-level); Andra applied for the construction licence in January 2023, ASNR issued a favourable opinion announced on 4 December 2025, a public inquiry is scheduled for the second half of 2026, the authorisation decree is expected in late 2027/early 2028 and first waste packages are planned for 2050.", "value": "~500; 83000; 2023-01; 2025-12-04; 2050", "unit": "m; m3; application; ASNR opinion; first packages", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "WNN - Regulator approves safety case for French repository", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear-news.org/articles/regulator-approves-safety-case-for-french-repository", "citation_date": "2025-12-08", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "Depth and waste split from ANS 2025-12-09; declaration of public utility by decree July 2022 (WNA storage page). Andra's own site is JavaScript-only and could not be read." }, { "fact_id": "wa_nagra_status", "page": "waste", "topic": "repositories", "claim": "Switzerland's Nagra submitted the general licence applications for a deep geological repository at Nördlich Lägern (surface facility in Stadel, Canton Zurich) and an encapsulation plant at Würenlingen to the Swiss Federal Office of Energy on 19 November 2024; the cantons plan to submit their statements in autumn 2027.", "value": "2024-11-19", "unit": "date", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "Kanton Zürich - Medienmitteilung: Geologisches Tiefenlager und Brennelemente-Verpackungsanlage (Rahmenbewilligungsgesuche eingereicht)", "citation_url": "https://www.zh.ch/de/news-uebersicht/medienmitteilungen/2024/11/geologisches-tiefenlager-und-brennelemente-verpackungsanlage.html", "citation_date": "2024-11-19", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "", "notes": "WNA storage page (2026-03-26): Federal Council decision around 2029, Parliament around 2030, possible referendum 2031, commissioning around 2050. Nagra's own page was blocked by robots.txt today." }, { "fact_id": "wa_yucca_status", "page": "waste", "topic": "repositories", "claim": "The US Yucca Mountain repository licence application was filed in June 2008 but the project has been suspended.", "value": "2008-06", "unit": "application date", "qualifier": "status per WNA storage page 2026-03-26", "citation_name": "WNA - Storage and Disposal of Radioactive Waste", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-wastes/storage-and-disposal-of-radioactive-waste", "citation_date": "2026-03-26", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "wa_us_interim_storage", "page": "waste", "topic": "repositories", "claim": "Two consolidated interim storage facilities were licensed by the NRC - Interim Storage Partners in Texas (September 2021) and Holtec's HI-STORE in New Mexico (May 2023, 8,680 tU); Holtec cancelled HI-STORE in 2025 and the US Supreme Court ruled on the Texas licence in June 2025.", "value": "2021-09; 2023-05; 8680", "unit": "licence dates; tU capacity", "qualifier": "per WNA storage page 2026-03-26 (first-run fetch)", "citation_name": "WNA - Storage and Disposal of Radioactive Waste", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-wastes/storage-and-disposal-of-radioactive-waste", "citation_date": "2026-03-26", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "wa_reprocessing_capacities", "page": "waste", "topic": "reprocessing", "claim": "Commercial reprocessing capacity is about 1,700 t/yr at La Hague (France), 800 t/yr design capacity at Rokkasho (Japan) and 400 t/yr at Mayak RT-1 (Russia); about 30% of all used fuel has been reprocessed and MOX fabrication capacity is about 480 t/yr.", "value": "1700; 800; 400; ~30; ~480", "unit": "t/yr; t/yr; t/yr; %; t/yr", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "WNA - Processing of Used Nuclear Fuel", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/fuel-recycling/processing-of-used-nuclear-fuel", "citation_date": "2024-08-23", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "Same figures as the supply_chain reprocessing facts." }, { "fact_id": "wa_fast_reactors_actinides", "page": "waste", "topic": "fast_reactors", "claim": "Fast neutron reactors can burn the long-lived actinides recovered from used fuel, and reactors designed to produce more plutonium than they consume are fast breeder reactors.", "value": "", "unit": "", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "WNA - Fast Neutron Reactors", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/fast-neutron-reactors", "citation_date": "2026-03-31", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "sr_deaths_per_twh", "page": "safety_record", "topic": "deaths", "claim": "Deaths per terawatt-hour of electricity (accidents plus air pollution) are 32.72 for brown coal, 24.62 for coal, 18.43 for oil, 4.63 for biomass, 2.821 for gas, 1.3 for hydropower, 0.035 for wind, 0.03 for nuclear and 0.019 for solar.", "value": "32.72; 24.62; 18.43; 4.63; 2.821; 1.3; 0.035; 0.03; 0.019", "unit": "deaths/TWh", "qualifier": "OWID dataset (year label 2021), based on Markandya & Wilkinson 2007 and Sovacool et al. 2016", "citation_name": "Our World in Data - Death rates per unit of electricity production (grapher data)", "citation_url": "https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/death-rates-from-energy-production-per-twh", "citation_date": "2026-10-09", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "", "notes": "The article text prints coal 24.62, oil 18.43, gas 2.82, hydro 1.3 and wind 0.04; nuclear and solar appear only in the chart data (0.03 and 0.019). OWID cites UNSCEAR (2008) for the Chernobyl death toll used in the nuclear figure." }, { "fact_id": "sr_hydro_banqiao", "page": "safety_record", "topic": "deaths", "claim": "Hydropower's 1.3 deaths per TWh is dominated by the 1975 Banqiao dam failure in China; excluding it, hydropower's rate is 0.04 deaths per TWh.", "value": "1.3; 0.04", "unit": "deaths/TWh", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "Our World in Data - What are the safest and cleanest sources of energy? (Hannah Ritchie)", "citation_url": "https://ourworldindata.org/safest-sources-of-energy", "citation_date": "2024-03-01", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "sr_coal_deaths_range", "page": "safety_record", "topic": "deaths", "claim": "OWID notes the coal figure is conservative and estimates a global average of 93 to 224 deaths per TWh for coal when wider air-pollution evidence is used.", "value": "93-224", "unit": "deaths/TWh", "qualifier": "OWID estimate", "citation_name": "Our World in Data - What are the safest and cleanest sources of energy? (Hannah Ritchie)", "citation_url": "https://ourworldindata.org/safest-sources-of-energy", "citation_date": "2024-03-01", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "sr_lifecycle_nuclear_ipcc", "page": "safety_record", "topic": "lifecycle_co2", "claim": "The IPCC's 2014 Fifth Assessment Report (Annex III) gives a median lifecycle emission of 12 g CO2-equivalent per kWh for nuclear power - similar to wind and lower than all types of solar.", "value": "12", "unit": "gCO2eq/kWh", "qualifier": "IPCC AR5 WG3 Annex III median, as cited by WNA", "citation_name": "WNA - Carbon Dioxide Emissions From Electricity", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/energy-and-the-environment/carbon-dioxide-emissions-from-electricity", "citation_date": "2026-03-26", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "The IPCC Annex III PDF itself could not be fetched today; the other technology medians in the brief (wind 11/12, solar PV 41/48, hydro 24, gas 490, coal 820) are therefore in the could-not-verify list." }, { "fact_id": "sr_lifecycle_nuclear_unece", "page": "safety_record", "topic": "lifecycle_co2", "claim": "The UNECE lifecycle assessment (published March 2022, often cited as UNECE 2021) estimated 5.1-6.4 g CO2-equivalent per kWh for nuclear, the lowest of all technologies assessed.", "value": "5.1-6.4", "unit": "gCO2eq/kWh", "qualifier": "UNECE as cited by WNA", "citation_name": "WNA - Carbon Dioxide Emissions From Electricity", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/energy-and-the-environment/carbon-dioxide-emissions-from-electricity", "citation_date": "2026-03-26", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "UNECE's own report pages could not be fetched today." }, { "fact_id": "sr_lifecycle_solar_oil_owid", "page": "safety_record", "topic": "lifecycle_co2", "claim": "OWID (using UNECE data) puts solar PV at 23-82 g CO2eq/kWh depending on where panels are manufactured and oil at about 715 g CO2eq/kWh (range 530-900); coal emits more than a hundred times more than nuclear per kWh.", "value": "23-82; 715 (530-900)", "unit": "gCO2eq/kWh", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "Our World in Data - What are the safest and cleanest sources of energy? (Hannah Ritchie)", "citation_url": "https://ourworldindata.org/safest-sources-of-energy", "citation_date": "2024-03-01", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "sr_capacity_factor_us_2024", "page": "safety_record", "topic": "capacity_factor", "claim": "US utility-scale capacity factors in 2024 were 90.8% for nuclear (93.0% in 2023), 64.6% geothermal, 59.5% other biomass, 34.6% conventional hydro, 34.3% wind, 25.0% solar thermal and 23.2% solar photovoltaic.", "value": "90.8; 64.6; 59.5; 34.6; 34.3; 25.0; 23.2", "unit": "%", "qualifier": "EIA Electric Power Annual Table 4.08.B, calendar 2024", "citation_name": "US EIA Electric Power Annual - Table 4.08.B Capacity Factors for Utility Scale Generators Primarily Using Non-Fossil Fuels", "citation_url": "https://www.eia.gov/electricity/annual/html/epa_04_08_b.html", "citation_date": "2026-10-09", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "", "notes": "The project brief assumed 'EIA 2024: nuclear ~92%'; EIA's annual table prints 90.8% for 2024 and 93.0% for 2023. Use the printed values (the brief's figure is not a source, so this is a note, not a recorded contradiction)." }, { "fact_id": "mu_coal_radioactivity", "page": "misunderstandings", "topic": "coal_vs_nuclear", "claim": "Most US coal contains slightly below 1 to 4 ppm uranium and 1-4 ppm thorium; burning concentrates these about tenfold into fly ash (10-30 ppm uranium), which is still within the range of granite, phosphate rock and shale - the USGS puts the average population dose from coal burning at much less than 1% of total exposure.", "value": "<1-4; 1-4; 10-30; <1", "unit": "ppm U in coal; ppm Th in coal; ppm U in fly ash; % of population dose", "qualifier": "USGS Fact Sheet FS-163-97", "citation_name": "USGS Fact Sheet FS-163-97 - Radioactive Elements in Coal and Fly Ash", "citation_url": "https://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/1997/fs163-97/FS-163-97.html", "citation_date": "1997-10-01", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "", "notes": "The popular claim that 'coal plants emit 100 times more radiation than nuclear plants' (ORNL Review, Gabbard 1993) could not be re-read today and is in the could-not-verify list; use the USGS framing instead." }, { "fact_id": "mu_everyday_doses", "page": "misunderstandings", "topic": "dose_comparisons", "claim": "The average American receives about 620 millirem (6.2 mSv) a year from natural background and medical sources; a chest X-ray is about 10 millirem (0.1 mSv) and a full-body CT scan about 1 rem (10 mSv).", "value": "620; 10; 1000", "unit": "mrem/yr; mrem; mrem", "qualifier": "NRC 'Doses in Our Daily Lives' (page dated 2015-10-05)", "citation_name": "US NRC - Doses in Our Daily Lives", "citation_url": "https://www.nrc.gov/about-nrc/radiation/around-us/doses-daily-lives.html", "citation_date": "2015-10-05", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "The same NRC page's dose calculator section uses 'about 360 mrem' (the older pre-medical-imaging average); the NRC TMI backgrounder gives a chest X-ray as about 6 mrem. Quote one source per comparison. The NRC page gives the potassium-40 activity of bananas (3,520 pCi/kg) but no banana dose, so the 'banana equivalent dose' is unverified.", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "mu_tmi_dose_context", "page": "misunderstandings", "topic": "dose_comparisons", "claim": "The Three Mile Island accident gave the surrounding 2 million people an average of about 1 millirem - about a sixth of the chest X-ray dose (6 mrem) and about 1% of the annual natural background (100-125 mrem) quoted by the NRC.", "value": "~1", "unit": "mrem", "qualifier": "NRC backgrounder", "citation_name": "US NRC - Backgrounder on the Three Mile Island Accident", "citation_url": "https://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/fact-sheets/3mile-isle.html", "citation_date": "2026-09-10", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "mu_land_use", "page": "misunderstandings", "topic": "land", "claim": "Per unit of electricity nuclear power needs about 50 times less land than coal and 18 to 27 times less than ground-mounted solar PV (UNECE 2021 lifecycle data as presented by Our World in Data); wind farms range from about 8 to 184 m2 per MWh depending on how the land between turbines is counted.", "value": "50x; 18-27x; 8-184", "unit": "relative to coal; relative to solar PV; m2/MWh (wind examples)", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "Our World in Data - How does the land use of different electricity sources compare? (Hannah Ritchie)", "citation_url": "https://ourworldindata.org/land-use-per-energy-source", "citation_date": "2022-06-16", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "mu_football_field", "page": "misunderstandings", "topic": "waste_volume", "claim": "All US commercial spent fuel ever produced (about 90,000 t) would fit on a single football field to a depth of less than 10 yards, according to the US Department of Energy.", "value": "~90000; <10", "unit": "t; yards", "qualifier": "DOE Office of Nuclear Energy", "citation_name": "US DOE Office of Nuclear Energy - 5 Fast Facts about Spent Nuclear Fuel", "citation_url": "https://www.energy.gov/ne/articles/5-fast-facts-about-spent-nuclear-fuel", "citation_date": "2022-10-03", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "mu_spent_fuel_energy", "page": "misunderstandings", "topic": "waste_volume", "claim": "More than 90% of the potential energy in nuclear fuel remains after five years of use in a reactor; the US does not recycle spent fuel while France does.", "value": ">90", "unit": "%", "qualifier": "DOE Office of Nuclear Energy", "citation_name": "US DOE Office of Nuclear Energy - 5 Fast Facts about Spent Nuclear Fuel", "citation_url": "https://www.energy.gov/ne/articles/5-fast-facts-about-spent-nuclear-fuel", "citation_date": "2022-10-03", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "high", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "mu_fukushima_radiation_deaths", "page": "misunderstandings", "topic": "accidents", "claim": "No deaths or cases of radiation sickness have resulted from radiation at Fukushima Daiichi; the human toll came from the earthquake and tsunami (about 19,500 deaths) and from the evacuation (2,313 disaster-related deaths among evacuees).", "value": "0; ~19500; 2313", "unit": "deaths", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "WNA - Fukushima Daiichi Accident", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/safety-and-security/safety-of-plants/fukushima-daiichi-accident", "citation_date": "2026-09-23", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "mu_yellowcake_not_yellow", "page": "misunderstandings", "topic": "fuel_cycle", "claim": "'Yellowcake' - uranium oxide concentrate - is usually khaki rather than yellow because the precipitated product is dried at high temperature.", "value": "", "unit": "", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "WNA - Uranium Mining Overview", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/mining-of-uranium/uranium-mining-overview", "citation_date": "2026-10-06", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "mu_transport_record", "page": "misunderstandings", "topic": "transport", "claim": "More than 25,000 shipments of used nuclear fuel have been made since 1971 without any release of radioactivity.", "value": ">25000", "unit": "shipments", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "WNA - Transport of Radioactive Materials", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/transport-of-nuclear-materials/transport-of-radioactive-materials", "citation_date": "2026-08-16", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" }, { "fact_id": "mu_reactor_years", "page": "misunderstandings", "topic": "accidents", "claim": "Over 20,000 reactor-years of commercial operation in 36 countries have produced three significant power-plant accidents, of which only Chernobyl caused radiation deaths.", "value": ">20000; 3", "unit": "reactor-years; accidents", "qualifier": "", "citation_name": "WNA - Safety of Nuclear Power Reactors", "citation_url": "https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/safety-and-security/safety-of-plants/safety-of-nuclear-power-reactors", "citation_date": "2026-05-27", "verified_on": "2026-10-09", "confidence": "medium", "contradictions": "", "notes": "" } ] }